Réponses aux demandes d'information

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Indigeneship in Nigeria
1.1 Ethnic Diversity

Sources indicate that Nigeria is made up of an estimated 250 ethnic groups (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 2.8; EU 2021-10; Encyclopedia Britannica 2023-10-22). Sources describe the ethnic composition of Nigeria [based on 2018 estimates (US 2023-10-17)] as being 30 percent Hausa, 15.5 percent Yoruba, 15.2 percent Igbo, and 6 percent Fulani (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 2.8; US 2023-10-17).

The country information report by the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) further notes that while individuals of different ethnic backgrounds live across the country, "many ethnic groups are concentrated geographically" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 3.2). The same source indicates that the Hausa are "predominantly" based in the north while the Yoruba are based in the southwest, the Igbo in the southeast, and the Fulani in the north (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 2.8).

2. Legislation
2.1 Definition of Indigene and Indigeneship

According to a 2019 academic article by Henry Gyang Mang, an academic with the Department of Military History of the Nigerian Army University Biu, and David Ehrhardt, an associate professor at Leiden University who researches governance and the role of non-state leaders in Nigeria (Leiden University n.d.), "[i]ndigeneship (or the synonym indigeneity) is the status of being a 'native,' or 'son of the soil,' in a particular locality in Nigeria, where it grants the holder the ability to claim historical belonging in contrast to 'settlers' who originate elsewhere" (Mang & Ehrhardt 2019-02-07, 334). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a history professor at Obafemi Awolowo University in Nigeria stated that the indigeneity of an individual is "mainly" established by their parental lineage on their father's side (Professor 2023-10-17). Similarly, in correspondence with the Research Directorate, a researcher of identity issues and a lecturer of political science at Redeemer's University in Nigeria noted that the formal establishment of indigeneity comes from parental lineage, particularly through one's father, but one's mother's family line can be used when there are "complications in the birth/parental upbringing of the Claimant" (Lecturer 2023-10-18). According to information provided in 2019 in correspondence with the Research Directorate and resent in 2023, Henry Gyang Mang noted that beyond "parental lineage," "most" local government areas have two additional "hurdles" to indigeneity: one related to "defined lineage" and the other being "linguistic," with certain languages ascribed as indigenous to a particular state and with some states having a homogenous linguistic character while others may have 5 languages, or up to 52 languages (Mang 2019-10-08). Encyclopædia Britannica notes that individuals who have lived in a territory for decades but are not a member of the dominant group are still considered "aliens" and in "most" rural areas, "may not acquire outright title to land" (Encyclopedia Britannica 2023-10-22). According to the DFAT report, the Nigerian Constitution does not provide a definition of "indigene" and "[i]n practice, state (or place) of origin refers to the paternal ancestral place of birth of an individual, rather than the individual's place of birth" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.55). The same source states that the Guiding Principles of the Federal Character Commission (FCC) indicates than an indigene of a state is anyone "'accepted'" as such by local authorities and notes that this "leave[s] enormous discretionary powers in the hands of these authorities, and analysts have reported numerous cases of corruption in the process of issuing certificates" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.55). The Lecturer stated that the only available legal description of an indigene is from Part II of the Guiding Principles and Formulae for the Distribution of All Cadres of Posts in the Federal Public Service as released by the FCC acting under the legal instrument establishing the FCC (FCC Establishment Act 1996) (2023-10-17). The Guiding Principles and Formulae for the Distribution of All Cadres of Posts attached to the Federal Character Commission (Establishment, etc.) Act, part II defines an indigene as follows:

1.Definitions, etc.

1. An indigene of a local government is a person-
   
   1. either of whose parents or any of whose grandparents was or is an indigene of the local government concerned; or
   2. who is accepted as an indigene by the local government:
   Provided that no person shall lay claim to more than one local government.
2. An indigene of a State means a person who is an indigene of one of the local governments in that State:
   Provided that no person shall lay claim to more than one State or to a State and the Federal Capital Territory.
3. An indigene of the Federal Capital Territory-
   
   1. is a Nigerian citizen, other than by naturalisation, who cannot lay claim to any State of the Federation; or
   2. is a person born in the Federal Capital Territory and whose descendants lived in the area presently constituting the Federal Capital Territory before 26 February, 1976 and has continued to reside in the Federal Capital Territory after that date. (Nigeria 1996, bold in original)

2.2 Legislation on Discrimination Against Non-Indigenous People

According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2022, "[t]he law prohibits ethnic discrimination by the government" (US 2023-03-20, 31). Article 42 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 provides the following:

42.

1. A citizen of Nigeria of a particular community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion or political opinion shall not, by reason only that he is such a person:-
   
   1. be subjected either expressly by, or in the practical application of, any law in force in Nigeria or any executive or administrative action of the government, to disabilities or restrictions to which citizens of Nigeria of other communities, ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religions or political opinions are not made subject; or
   2. be accorded either expressly by, or in the practical application of, any law in force in Nigeria or any such executive or administrative action, any privilege or advantage that is not accorded to citizens of Nigeria of other communities, ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religions or political opinions.
2. No citizen of Nigeria shall be subjected to any disability or deprivation merely by reason of the circumstances of his birth.
3. Nothing in subsection (1) of this section shall invalidate any law by reason only that the law imposes restrictions with respect to the appointment of any person to any office under the State or as a member of the armed forces of the Federation or member of the Nigeria Police Forces or to an office in the service of a body, corporate established directly by any law in force in Nigeria. (Nigeria 1999)

According to Mang,

[t]he Nigerian constitution has been vague in expanding the definitions on or related to federal character and its attending features such as indigeneship certificates. There is no law apart from that of citizenship, which gives every Nigerian the right to conduct his/her affairs without prejudice. However, it is limited by the phrases by which indigenization circumvent the rights of non-indigenes and there, the Nigerian constitution is silent concerning the rights of non-indigenes as citizens. (2019-10-08)

The Lecturer stated that there are no laws to protect non-indigenes from discrimination and the only recourse available for an individual denied access to services, would be to go to the area where they are considered indigenous, and access the services there (2023-10-18). The Professor stated that the available recourse against discrimination is to seek "redress" through a court of law, but "most people" do not have the money needed to prosecute a case which could last for an extended period (2023-10-17). The Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index (BTI) 2022, which "assesses the transformation toward democracy and a market economy as well as the quality of governance in 137 countries" notes that while all Nigerians are considered citizens, "subnational identities are strong and prevalent" and "the very concept of indigenousness is discriminatory against the 'non-indigenes' of a federal state, that is, migrants from other federal states" (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2022, 2, 6). BTI 2022 adds that while the political class is aware of the issue, there have been "no real efforts" to change it and indicates that the Constitution enshrines the federal quota system which "to a large extent determines access to offices and institutions on federal and state level according to ethnic, regional and other identities" (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2022, 6). The DFAT report notes that indigenes individuals "often" receive "preferential access to public resources, government jobs, access to education and other opportunities not made available to 'settlers'" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.55).

3. Establishment of Indigeneship

Chris Kwaja, a Senior Lecturer and Researcher at the Centre for Peace and Security in Nigeria, explains, in a chapter of Poverty and Prejudice: Religious Inequality and the Struggle for Sustainable Development, that "determination of indigeneship, or nativity, is granted to citizens by the local government authority when someone is able to show their genealogical roots to a community within the [Local Government Area], which is also validated by the community traditional rulers" (Kwaja 2023, xiii, 140). According to Kwaja, for individuals who belong to religious minority groups access to these certificates of indigeneship becomes difficult and, as a result, "in many such instances," they are denied employment opportunities (2023, xiii, 140). According to the Lecturer, while indigeneity is formally established by parental linage, it is informally established by personal affirmation and affirmation from members of the public who "can prove to be very familiar" with the claimant (2023-10-18). The Professor noted that "indigeneity is demonstrated mainly by ability to locate or identify one's family/lineage/compound of birth, in which case the elders of the lineage or community could identify one as being related or belonging" (2023-10-17). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, an associate professor of sociology at the University of Prince Edward Island who has conducted research on race and ethnicity in Nigeria and Canada stated that the indigene status of an individual can be verified "before the issuance of [an] attestation letter" by contacting the councilor who represents the ward (Associate Professor 2023-10-28).

The Associate Professor stated in correspondence with the Research Directorate that "[i]nformally," language and physical appearance are used to establish indigeneity (Associate Professor 2023-10-28). The Professor noted that indigeneship is "mostly" defined by traditions and conventions, and the primary form of identification is indigenous language; however, children growing up in cities are only versatile in the language of their parents if their parents take the time to teach them (2023-10-17). The Professor also noted that if a child can speak the language of the area in which they are raised, that "mostly" does not confer indigeneship on them (2023-10-17). The Lecturer stated that indigeneity is demonstrated informally by local language ability and an individual's ability to identify and describe their ancestry and the local features of the territory (2023-10-18).

3.1 Indigeneship Certificate

According to the Associate Professor, there is no single name for the certificate of indigeneity across local governments in Nigeria; for instance, the Ehime Mbano Local Government of Imo State issues a "Certificate of Identification," while the Abak Local Government of Akwa Ibom State issues a "Certificate of Origin" (2023-10-28). According to Australia's DFAT report, "[t]he Certificate of State of Origin is a prima facie evidence of the state of origin which a person claims, and is a general means of identification"; further, it "may" be a requirement for "various administrative purposes," including scholarships, employment, admission into educational institutions, or political appointments (2020-12-03, para. 5.51). The same source notes that the issuing authority of the Certificate of State of Origin is the Governor, but "in practice," it is issued by the State Liaison Office or the Local Government Secretariat within the issuing state, and the signing authority is the Director of the State's Liaison Office (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.53). The Professor stated that the local government of parents usually issues the certificate of origin or "certificate of introduction" to indigenes for identification purpose, and that these are "usually" required in "competitive" searches for employment in a federal establishment or admissions to federal government institutions (2023-10-17). The DFAT report states that the "appearance of the certificate [of State of Origin] differs from state to state but would normally be printed in colour with the Nigerian Coat of Arms and/or the individual state's Coat of Arms on the face" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.53). According to the Lecturer, indigeneity is demonstrated formally by identity documents, notably the Certificate of Local Government Origin issued by the claimant's local government authority (2023-10-18). According to the same source:

The Certificate of Origin is acquired from a Local Government Council through some processes which may include:

1. Filling a 'Form' designated for the purpose,
2. Paying some prescribed fees for the service,
3. Showing evidences of local tax payments, or doing on the spot local tax payments,
4. Interview by a Local Government Officer specially designated for the purpose, and
5. Local verification of the Claimant's claim by the Local Government authority. (Lecturer 2023-10-18)

Kwaja notes that a Certificate of Indigeneship is issued by the chairperson of a local government council, pending the approval of a district head who is "mostly" a traditional ruler (2023, 140). The Professor stated that a Certificate of Indigeneity is "obtained from the local government office of the parents, especially that of the father if the parents are from different local government areas or states," after an individual provides proof of their lineage or living ancestors and pays the fee, which varies between 3000 [C$5] and 10,000 Nairas [C$17.6] depending on the local government and state (2023-10-17). The Professor noted that for a certificate to be considered authentic, it should have the logo or insignia of the local government and be duly signed either by the chairman of the local government or their delegate (2023-10-17). The Lecturer stated that in "some" cases, the Certificate of Indigeneity may be on the letterhead of the issuing local authority, but "in many cases," it may also be on an "ordinary sheet of paper (without letterhead)," and that it may be in colour or black and white (2023-10-18). The Lecturer further stated that the "most important features" of the certificate are as follows:

• The name and address of the issuing local government authority,
• A reference number,
• The date of issue,
• It may be addressed to: "to whom it may concern,"
• It may be titled as: "Certificate of Local Government Origin" or "Confirmation of Local Government Origin,"
• The name of the claimant,
• A short statement confirming that the Claimant is an indigene of the local government area,
• The name of the family compound and the town/village,
• The name of the State in Nigeria,
• The name and signature of the local government official who issued the certificate,
• The official title/position/designation of the issuing officer, and
• The official stamp of the Office/Department and or Local Government Council that issued the Certificate (2023-10-18).

The Lecturer added that when someone is considered a non-indigene resident of the local area, the body of their Certificate of Indigeneity may "just be worded" as "affirming, or certifying or confirming" that the claimant is "from" the local government area (2023-10-18, emphasis in original). The DFAT report notes that local governments can issue "Certificates of Local Government of Origin," but there is little information regarding these certificates (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.54). According to the Lecturer, the "Certificate of Local Government origin" can be verified either formally by contacting the issuing authority or informally by visiting the local area the family claimed, or by seeking information from local sources familiar with the area (2023-10-18).

A sample of a "Confirmation of Local Government Origin", which was sent to the Research Directorate by the Lecturer, is attached to this Response (Attachment 1). Samples of certificates of indigeneity issued by local governments in Nigeria and sent to the Research Directorate by the Associate Professor are also attached to this Response (Attachment 2, 3, and 4).

4. Influence of Indigeneship

When asked by the Research Directorate if non-indigeneity can influence access to employment, housing, education, or health services the Professor responded that it does (Professor 2023-10-17), and the Lecturer responded that it can "depending on political connections" (Lecturer 2023-10-18). International Crisis Group states that indigenes are "granted preferences in education" (2018-07-26, 9). Mang noted that health care is "one of the few" services that is available without discrimination, but, regarding education, "most" states opt to subsidize education only for their own indigenes which in "some cases" can result in non-indigenes paying "up to 25 and 50% more" (2019-10-08). The Professor stated that non-indigeneity has "forced many" to change their name, learn the local language, and change religion to secure accommodation, and, in some communities, non-indigenes can only hold land through a lease (2023-10-17). Sources indicate that access to land in Nigeria can depend on a person's indigenous status (Mang 2019-10-08; International Crisis Group 2018-07-26, 9). Mang stated that

the housing policy in Nigeria is not generally adhered to properly, (except maybe in the federal capital, Abuja). … [T]he Land Use Act, which rests the power and authority over land in the hands of the states, also recognizes the authority of ethnic traditional rulers over lands seen as "custodial to ethnic groups." Groups with such custodial rights have tended to restrict access to land and development of housing most especially within their spheres of ethnic or religious influence. It cannot be said though that this follows in all cases, but areas where there have been constant ethnic and religious contestations have in most cases within Nigeria, tended towards polarized housing, where people from similar religions or ethnicities clump together, most especially where there have been cases of strife. In these cases, indigeneship, or religion could play a vital role in choices of either buying land or a house. (2019-10-08)

According to the DFAT report, "state and local governments reportedly frequently discriminate against ethnic groups not indigenous to their areas, including through occasionally compelling individuals to return to a region from which their ethnic group originated but where they may no longer have ties" using "threats, discrimination in employment, or destruction of their homes" and individuals who stay "sometimes experience further discrimination, including denial of scholarships and exclusion from employment in the civil service, police and military" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 3.3). Mang stated the following:

It is part of all forms of government (federal, state and local government) recruitment processes that the applicant must tender an indigeneship certificate as part of the process of gaining employment. [On its website,] [t]he [FCC] … describes its primary function as ["implement[ing] and enforc[ing] the Federal Character Principle of fairness and equity in the distribution of public posts and socio-economic infrastructures among the various federating units of the Federal Republic of Nigeria" (Nigeria n.d.)]. One of the main tasks of the FCC is to statistically verify quotas of employees within government ministries, agencies and parastatals, by the different states in which they come from in Nigeria, and in so doing, recommend needed balancing, where quotas of some states fall below a required level. In determining this, the FCC insists on candidates not only presenting their indigeneship certificates, but also letters of introduction from the state cabinet office (or office of the head of civil service), the letter helps in affirming the genuineness of the indigeneship certificate and confirming the individual as a bona fide indigene of the state from the mentioned local government area. Although the employment space in Nigeria presently is riddled with the corrupt practice of "who you know" (a colloquial for gaining employment opportunities through friends, family, or the use of money), a lot is also achieved through the FCC. Thus it is not uncommon for people whose quotas are filled within their states to claim indigeneship from other states to take advantage of their unfilled quotas. This in some cases has led to a lot of petitioning and interstate bureaucratic conflicts, which sometimes go unsettled. Where bona fide indigenes of a state discover that non-indigenes gained employment through their own states, this portends a lot of problems both within the bureaucracy and the polity. There have been cases of riots and demonstration, some leading to violent conflicts. (2019-10-08)

Indigeneship can also affect political participation (Mang & Ehrhardt 2019-02-07, 336; International Crisis Group 2018-07-26, 9), including access to political appointments (Mang and Ehrhardt 2019-02-07, 332).

4.1 Interethnic Conflict

The Lecturer noted that indigeneity can play a role in intercommunal conflict and "inspires or fuels communal mobilization for public protests, which may turn violent, in inter-communal conflict" and that indigeneity influences "reprisal mentality" (2023-10-18). The same source further noted that when a non-indigene is denied access to public services, this can be viewed as an "injustice" by their community, and the state can respond in a number of ways such as:

• taking police action to prevent disorder or restore order,
• setting up fact-finding and mediation panels/committees,
• providing palliatives /compensation packages,
• prosecution of offences/offenders arising therefrom, and
• providing alternative avenues for non-natives to access the desired public service (Lecturer 2023-10-18).

The Professor noted that indigeneity plays a role in intercommunal conflict, "especially" when it has a "religious undertone," particularly in northern and eastern regions, further noting that different ethnic groups "mostly" live in specific areas and could be attacked or could mobilize to defend themselves on the basis of ethnicity (2023-10-17). The Professor stated that the state responds by mobilizing security to use force and arrest individuals, beyond which "nothing else is usually done" (2023-10-17). The Associate Professor indicated that the state may address intercommunal conflict through the court system and local arbitration, but may respond to violence by deploying the military or the police "to maintain law and order" (2023-10-28). The DFAT report states that "tension" between "some" ethnic groups, "occasionally" results in localized violence with a government response of "heavily concentrated security actions, incorporating police, military and other security services, often in the form of a joint task force" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 3.4).

5. Relocating Within Nigeria as an Indigenous Person

Article 41 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 provides the following:

41. (1) Every citizen of Nigeria is entitled to move freely throughout Nigeria and to reside in any part thereof, and no citizen of Nigeria shall be expelled from Nigeria or refused entry thereby or exit therefrom. (Nigeria 1999, bold in original)

A report from the European Union Agency for Asylum states that while indigeneity facilitates settling in a given area, it is not a "requirement" (EU 2021-10, 38). Sources indicated that there are no supports available to non-indigenous people who are relocating (Lecturer 2023-10-18; Professor 2023-10-17). Mang states that for "most" Nigerians, there is "very little" assistance for individuals relocating and financial problems are the largest obstacle (2019-10-08). According to the DFAT report, "[w]hile there are no legal impediments to internal relocation in Nigeria, state and local governments reportedly frequently discriminate against ethnic groups not indigenous to their areas" (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.30). The same source further states that relocating can be "more challenging" for non-indigenes, particularly between northern and southern states, due to differences in language, religion, and culture (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.34). A report from the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that, according to two confidential sources interviewed, Nigeria is a "'network society'" making it "almost impossible" to find housing or a job without social contacts (Netherlands 2021-03, para. 1.3). Similarly, the DFAT report states that "[o]n occasion, non-indigenes can experience challenges moving to a new state if they do not possess familial connections or financial means in their new locations" and "may" face "discrimination" when trying to access government services such as employment within the civil service, but these restrictions "do not apply" in Lagos and Abuja (Australia 2020-12-03, para. 5.32).

5.1 Abuja, Lagos, and Port Harcourt

The Professor noted that obstacles faced by non-natives moving to cities such as Abuja, Lagos, or Port Harcourt, such as finding a place to live or gaining employment, are not specific to non-indigenes but experienced by those relocating to a new city (2023-10-17). The EU Agency for Asylum states that large cities such as Lagos are more ethnically and religiously diverse (EU 2021-10, 35). Mang provided the following:

Non-native settlement in states and areas such as Abuja in contemporary times is most convenient for Nigerians with not only a high level of formal education, but also with unique skills. Abuja is an example of a newly created city … its emergence that is relatively recent makes it a city with so much regulation and control, even to the level of ethnic quotas. Most non-indigenes within Abuja are protected by the authority of the [Federal Capital Development Authority] and by the convenience of the Land Use Act of 1978 (modified in 2004), which rests the federal capital in the hands of the federal government, which gives more room for the practice and appreciation of federal character. This is not the same for other cities.

In Port Harcourt for instance, most non-natives who thrive in the city are either oil workers or people allied to oil servicing companies. Non-indigenous informal workers who seek jobs in which indigenous peoples are capable of doing are usually frustrated in various informal manners, up to even possible threats by some indigenes. Only niche informal businesses like the sale of livestock and meat butchering, which has been a preserve of Hausa or Fulani from the north, has been mainly captured in Port Harcourt by non-indigenes.

Lagos on the other hand, has had a long history of accommodating non-indigenes, mostly the Igbo, who have since the early 1900s lived in the area. … The Cosmopolitan nature of the city began to raise fears among the Yoruba who saw the potential of losing out, both as an identity group and as a political force. These fears and the subsequent actions, which were taken introduced into the nationalist sphere in Nigeria, the dangerous but pertinent spell of ethnic nationalism.

Ethnic nationalism has further helped fuel the indigeneship and non-indigeneship struggle between indigenes and settlers in most cities. This has been worsened by the increase in job opportunities and a consequent increase in populations of various ethnic groups both autochthonous and migrant. Non-indigenes, sometimes face the problem of being attacked when violence erupts in cities where they are seen as people benefiting from opportunities meant for the "owners of the land." Although not a constant, there is a quantifiable frequency by which one can argue its potency in a country with a speedily growing population. (2019-10-08)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

References

Associate Professor. 2023-10-28. University of Prince Edward Island. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Australia. 2020-12-13. Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). "Nigeria." DFAT Country Information Report. [Accessed 2023-10-20]

Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2022. "Nigeria." Bertelsmann Stiftung Transformation Index. [Accessed 2023-10-20]

Encyclopædia Britannica. 2023-10-22. "Nigeria." [Accessed 2023-10-23]

European Union (EU). 2021-10. Agency for Asylum. "Nigeria." Country Guidance. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

International Crisis Group. 2018-07-26. Stopping Nigeria's Spiralling Farmer-Herder Violence. Africa Report No. 262. [Accessed 2023-10-26]

Kwaja, Chris. 2023. "Beyond the Rhetoric of Freedom: Religious Inequity in Nigeria." Poverty and Prejudice: Religious Inequality and the Struggle for Sustainable Development. Edited by Mariz Tadros, Philip Mader & Kathryn Cheeseman. Bristol: Bristol University Press. [Accessed 2023-11-09]

Lecturer, Redeemer's University. 2023-10-18. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Leiden University. N.d. "David Ehrhardt, Associate Professor." [Accessed 2019-10-10]

Mang, Henry Gyang. University of Jos, Nigeria. 2019-10-08. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Mang, Henry Gyang & David Ehrhardt. 2019-02-07. "The Politics of Paper: Negotiating Over and Around Indigeneship Certification in Plateau State, Nigeria." Canadian Journal of African Studies. Vol. 52, No. 3. [Accessed 2023-10-26]

The Netherlands. 2021-03. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Nigeria." Country of Origin Information Report. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

Nigeria. 1999. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

Nigeria. 1996. Federal Character Commission (Establishment, etc.) Act. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

Professor, Obafemi Awolowo University. 2023-10-17. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

United States (US). 2023-10-17. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). "Nigeria." The World Factbook. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

United States (US). 2023-03-20. Department of State. "Nigeria." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2022. [Accessed 2023-10-23]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: academic at the Centre for Conflict Management and Peace Studies in Nigeria; Centre for Democracy and Development; lecturer in sociology at a Nigerian university; professor of sociology and anthropology at a Canadian university; professor of sociology at a Nigerian university; Society for the Improvement of Rural People.

Internet sites, including: African Journal of Politics and Administrative Studies; African Studies; Al Jazeera; Amnesty International; Asylum Research Centre; Austrian Red Cross – ecoi.net; BBC; Belgium – Commissariat général aux réfugiés et aux apatrides; Center for Democracy and Development; Council on Foreign Relations; European Union – European University Institute; France – Office français de protection des réfugiés et apatrides; Freedom House; Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime; The Guardian; Human Rights Watch; International Journal of Science Technology and Management; Minority Rights Group International; The Nigerian Journal of Communication; Nnamdi Azikiwe Journal of Philosophy; Political Economy of Resource, Human Security and Environmental Conflicts in Africa; Reuters; Social Sciences; UK – Home Office; University of Oxford – Department of International Development; UN – Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights; US – Institute of Peace.

Attachments

1. Nigeria. N.d. Confirmation of Local Government Origin. Sent to the Research Directorate by the Lecturer, 2023-10-18.
2. Nigeria. N.d. Ehime Mbano local government in Imo State. Certificate of Identification Local Govt./State of Origin. Sent to the Research Directorate by the Associate Professor, 2023-10-28.
3. Nigeria. 2019-10-24. Mangu local government council in Plateau State. Letter of Attestation. Sent to the Research Directorate by the Associate Professor, 2023-10-28.
4. Nigeria. 2023-07-07. Abak local government in Akwa Ibom State. Certificate of Origin. Sent to the Research Directorate by the Associate Professor, 2023-10-28.