Mexico: Situation of single women, including single older women and single women who head their own households; their treatment by society and authorities; their ability to live on their own and access to housing, employment, and health and support services, particularly in Mexico City and Mérida (2022–September 2024)
1. Overview
Data from the 2023 National Survey of Demographic Dynamics (Encuesta Nacional de la Dinámica Demográfica, ENADID), presented in a May 2024 press release by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, INEGI), indicates the following information regarding the marital status of women and girls of reproductive age (15 to 49 years): 35.3 percent were single; 28.5 percent were married; 24.8 percent were in a common-law relationship; and 11.4 percent had previously lived in a union (i.e. were divorced, separated or widowed) (Mexico 2024-05-22, 12).
Data from the 2022 National Occupation and Employment Survey (Encuesta Nacional de Ocupación y Empleo, ENOE), cited in a May 2023 INEGI press release, indicates the following: 67 percent of women and girls aged 12 and over were mothers; among those mothers, 47 percent were married, 20 percent were in common-law relationships, 11 percent were single, 12 percent were widowed, 7 percent were separated, and 3 percent were divorced (Mexico 2023-05-08, 1). The same press release states that in 2022, 48 percent of single mothers were the head of household themselves, 39 percent were daughters of the head of household, and 12 percent had another family relationship to the head of household (Mexico 2023-05-08, 4). Data from the 2020 National Survey of Household Income and Expenditures (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH), as presented in the same INEGI 2023 press release, states that in households with [translation] "at least one single mother," 65 percent of the household's quarterly income came from employment, 19 percent came from "transfers" [including pensions, scholarships, government benefits, remittances, donations, etc. (Mexico 2023-07-26, 11)], 13 percent came from the ["income that comes from providing services in the household for personal consumption" ([Mexico [2019]])] and 3 percent came from rental income (Mexico 2023-05-08, 5). An article published on the Inter-American Development Bank's (IDB) website, and written by IDB economist and researcher Miguel Ángel Talamas Marcos, reports that "the share of [single mothers in Mexico] has grown by 60% over the last two decades," which translates to "four million single mothers in the country" (Talamas Marcos 2023-09-18).
2. Situation and Treatment of Single Women
According to a report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on gender issues in Mexico, women are provided with equal rights and Mexican legislation "does not legally constrain women's freedom of movement, decision to work, marry, own, dispose of and inherit property, or to start and run a business" (2023-11-01, 29). According to an article about Mexican households headed by women published by Cámara Periodismo Legislativo, the monthly publication of the Chamber of Deputies of the Mexican Congress (Mexico 2024-06) and written by Emma Trejo Martínez, [translation] "just over half of [female-headed households] are economically disadvantaged," which "often contributes to encouraging the inclusion of children in economic activity" (Trejo Martínez 2022-05-02). The same source states that women heads of household take on multiple roles as they are [translation] "often the only adult" in the home; these roles include being the financial provider, the caregiver, and taking on domestic tasks (Trejo Martínez 2022-05-02).The same article indicates that single women who head their own household do not have adequate child care options due to the lack of access to institutional child care services (Trejo Martínez 2022-05-02).
The article published by IDB states that "while the share of single mothers among women increased by at least 40% from 2005 to 2023 in Mexico's top three income quartiles, it increased 80% in the bottom quartile of the income scale" and notes that this has affected women with lower incomes and led to "unsatisfying job prospects and a precarious economic future" (Talamas Marcos 2023-09-18).
According to the 2021 National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares, ENDIREH) by Mexico's INEGI, 73.8 percent of single women and girls aged 15 and over experienced some form of violence or workplace discrimination at least once in their lifetime, including psychological violence (53.3 percent), physical violence (31 percent), sexual violence (61.5 percent) and economic, patrimonial [or property-related] violence [1] and/or workplace discrimination (16.9 percent) (Mexico 2023, 10). The report indicates that 74 percent of women and girls aged 15 and over that are separated, divorced or widowed also experienced some form of violence at least once in their lifetime, including psychological violence (59.6 percent), physical violence (43.9 percent), sexual violence (48.1 percent) and economic, patrimonial and/or discrimination (44.9 percent) (Mexico 2023, 10). For further information on gender-based violence in Mexico, see Response to Information Request MEX201942 of September 2024.
2.1 Situation of Women-Headed Households
In correspondence with the Research Directorate, the Mexican Institute for Competitiveness (Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad, IMCO), a non-profit public policy research centre in Mexico (IMCO n.d.), citing ENIGH data, indicated that 35 percent of households in Mexico are headed by women and that women-headed households faced the [translation] "most economic pressure to meet their needs"; further, when compared to the general population, women-headed households experiencing poverty "were the most frequently affected by moderate (18%) and severe (14%) food insecurity" (IMCO 2024-07-19).
3. Ability of Single Women to Live on Their Own
The IMF report indicates that women's rights "to collect, own, [and] manage" both "movable and immovable assets" are impacted by social and cultural norms which are "driving factors in the unequal allocation of land use," particularly in rural areas (2023-11-01, para. 47). The same source, citing data from a 2020 National Women's Institute (Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres, INMUJERES) report, states that 25.9 percent communal parcel certificate holders under the ejido [2] system were women, and "only 7.4 percent of ejidal and communal entities were led by women" (IMF 2023-11-01, 25).
In correspondence with the Research Directorate, the Human Rights Commission of Mexico City (Comisión de Derechos Humanos de la Ciudad de Mexico, CDHCM), a municipal agency responsible for receiving and investigating complaints of human rights abuses by members of the public administration of Mexico City (Mexico City n.d.), stated that in Mexico, [translation] "women have the capacity to live alone, but face greater obstacles to guaranteeing their rights, such as with housing, employment, and health and support services," and added that that the difficulties women face are not due to their marital status but based on factors such as "gender, sexual orientation and their age" (Mexico City 2024-07-17).
4. Access to Housing
A 2024 report on Mexico's economy by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) states that "[i]nadequate housing affects disproportionally vulnerable groups," including women, who live in rural and peripheral areas (2024-02-27, 82). Citing data from INEGI's 2022 ENIGH, IMCO indicated in correspondence with the Research Directorate that [translation] "7% of single women in Mexico have legal ownership or co-ownership of their homes, while for married women this proportion rises to 14%" (2024-07-19).
The CDHCM stated that nationally, women in Mexico own three out of every ten homes, while in Mexico City this figure increases to four out of every ten homes (Mexico City 2024-07-17). The same source explained that [translation] "this disparity between male and female ownership is based on income inequality and the wage gap, making it much more likely for women to rent housing" (Mexico City 2024-07-17). According to the same source, the CDHCM [translation] "does not observe that there are discriminatory requirements based on marital status to either access rental housing or to acquire a home," but acknowledges that "it would be easier to share mortgage loans … to lower costs" (Mexico City 2024-07-17).
The CDHCM stated that the Housing Institute of Mexico City (Instituto de Vivienda de la Ciudad de Mexico) offers various programs supporting [translation] "access to financing for the purchase and renovation of housing" and added that those programs are offered to individuals regardless of their marital status (Mexico City 2024-07-17). The same source stated that the Institute prioritizes individuals [translation] "with low economic resources or in vulnerable conditions, among whom it expressly refers to single mothers and women heads of household" (Mexico City 2024-07-17).
5. Access to Employment
The May 2023 press release on single mothers by the INEGI, citing information from the ENOE survey for the last quarter of 2022, states that seven in ten single mothers were part of the labour force, and among this group 97 percent were employed (Mexico 2023-05-08, 3). Concerning types of employment for single mothers, the same source indicates that during the period studied, 78 percent of the single mothers who were employed were paid employees, 18 percent were self-employed, 2 percent were employers, and 2 percent were unpaid workers (Mexico 2023-05-08, 4). The same data also shows that 70 percent of single mothers who were paid employees had benefits (Mexico 2023-05-08, 4). According to INEGI data on divorce statistics in 2022, out of the 166,766 divorces registered, 52.1 percent of women reported working at the time of their divorce, 24 percent reported not working, and 23.9 percent did not specify (Mexico 2023-09-27, 11).
The CDHCM stated that [translation] "there is no data on discrimination against single women" in the workplace, and added that instead, employers associate women who are married or in a relationship as eventually becoming a parent and "discriminate [against them] on that basis" (Mexico City 2024-07-17).
The US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2023 indicates that although under the law, women and men have the same rights and legal status and "'equal pay for equal work performed in equal jobs, hours of work, and conditions of efficiency,'" enforcement of the law has not been effective (US 2024-04-22, 35). The same source notes that women are "more likely" to experience discrimination related to their pay, working hours, and benefits, with Afro-Mexican and Indigenous women reporting the existence of "structural inequality in their daily lives" (US 2024-04-22, 35). Bertelsmann Stiftung's Transformation Index (BTI) 2024, which covers the period from 1 February 2021 to 31 January 2023 and "assesses the transformation toward democracy and a market economy as well as the quality of governance in 137 countries," indicates that Mexico scored "the worst" in Latin America for wage equality of similar work, where "women are 49% less likely than men to receive an equal wage for similar work" (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2024, 2, 25). US Country Reports 2023 adds that it is "common" for job postings to include information about the desired gender, age, marital status, and parental status of future candidates (2024-04-22, 35).
According to BTI 2024, in 2021, the employment rate for women was 38.5 percent, though this figure does not include women who work in the informal sector, and notes that wages and working conditions in the informal sector are "much lower" than in the formal sector (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2024, 25).
The article published by Cámara Periodismo Legislativo states that single mothers "often work longer hours and less conventional schedules" than their married counterparts and are "more likely" to work nights or on weekends in low-paying jobs, thus having to rely on relatives and others for child care (Trejo Martínez 2022-05-02).
The IMF report states that in urban areas, women work in the informal economy at a higher rate than men, while in rural areas, "there is virtually no gender gap in informality rates," which are significantly higher overall (2023-11-01, 2). According to the same report, women living in rural parts of Mexico are "more vulnerable" to informality due to lower levels of education and the structure of the economy in rural zones (IMF 2023-11-01, 5). Additionally, the IMF report notes that social norms place a "heavier burden" on women in terms of housework and child care, which in turn reduces their participation in the labour market (2023-11-01, 5). Similarly, the OECD report states that Mexican women bear a "disproportion[ate]" share of "[d]omestic and care responsibilities," which limits their ability to obtain education or employment (2024-02-27, 73). The article published by IDB indicates that factors such as workplace discrimination, gender wage gaps, and a lack of access to "full-time, publicly funded" child care are "significantly amplified" for single mothers (Talamas Marcos 2023-09-18).
A 2024 report by IMCO, which [translation] "measured the ability to attract and retain women's talent in the labor market" across Mexico's [32 states, counting Mexico City, the Federal District], ranked Mexico City in first place based on having the country's highest rates of women graduating from post secondary institutions, lowest rate of teenage pregnancies, and lowest rate of gender inequality in the unpaid labour market (2024-05, 2, 4, 16). The same report ranked Yucatán third (IMCO 2024-05, 4).
In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a representative from the State of Yucatán's Women Secretariat (Secretaría de las Mujeres, Semujeres) stated that when looking at women living in rural communities, they observe how [translation] "culturally and historically, women continue to bear the burden of caring for their children and the responsibility for housework," which "in many cases prevents them from accessing education and paid jobs that contribute to their economic autonomy, with their only alternative often being depending on their nuclear families or their partners/husbands to survive" (Yucatán 2024-07-17). According to the same source, women living in urban areas like in [Yucatán's capital] Mérida still experience gender inequality, as [translation] "social paradigms that pigeonhole women in positions more related to care and soft skills leave them at a disadvantage in accessing better paid jobs" (Yucatán 2024-07-17).
6. Access to Health and Support Services
Citing INEGI's 2022 ENIGH, IMCO in its response to the Research Directorate stated that 51 percent of unmarried women and 55 percent of married women are registered with a medical care institution (2024-07-19).
The article published by Cámara Periodismo Legislativo states that access to professional health services, including prenatal care, are lower for single teenage mothers who predominantly reside in low-income rural areas; this situation [translation] "increases the risks in cases of emergencies during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period" (Trejo Martínez 2022-05-02).
Sources report the cancellation of a conditional cash transfer program, Prospera (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2024, 24; Nexos 2019-08-06), which included food aid for pregnant and breastfeeding women and young children (Nexos 2019-08-06).
BTI 2024 adds the following about Prospera:
While Prospera aid reached families through mothers, the [government of President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, scheduled to be in office until 1 October 2024, when he will be replaced by Claudia Sheinbaum, who was elected in June 2024 (BBC 2024-06-03)] now allocates funds specifically and directly to those affected: the elderly, women with young children, and as scholarships for children and youth in elementary, secondary schools and universities. All recipients must be registered by government officials. Hence, this aid is vulnerable to patronage-style manipulation. (Bertelsmann Stiftung 2024, 24)
The CDHCM stated that 9 out of 10 women in Mexico do not have access to social security, while the ratio for men is reduced to 7.5 people out of every 10 (Mexico City 2024-07-17). The same source explained that [translation] "this gender gap is directly associated with the disproportionate access to employment, as women mostly have access to informal work that lacks social security and, therefore, health services" (Mexico City 2024-07-17). The CDHCM stated that in the case of individuals lacking social security due to their employment in the informal sector, the State [translation] "recently" implemented IMSS-BIENESTAR (Mexico City 2024-07-17). According to website of the government of Mexico, IMSS-BIENESTAR was created to [translation] "provide free medical care, medication" and other services to people who do not have social security, and is available in 23 states (Mexico n.d.). The CDHCM representative added that the Government of Mexico offers a social assistance program for the children of working mothers, which [translation] "provides bimonthly financial support to [children], adolescents, and young people in vulnerable situations due to the temporary or permanent absence of one or both parents" (Mexico City 2024-07-17). According to the same source, single women in Mexico City can seek support through a number of social programs offered by the city, [translation] "for which there are no requirements related to the marital status of the beneficiary," including a program that offers financial support to single mothers continuing their studies, and another for those who have in their care children under the age of 18 (Mexico City 2024-07-17). Information on the requirements to participate in those programs and on the number of people who have been served by them could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.
This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.
Notes
[1] Patrimonial violence (violencia patrimonial) [property-related violence] is defined in the 2021 National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (Encuesta Nacional sobre la Dinámica de las Relaciones en los Hogares, ENDIREH) as follows:
Any act or omission that affects the victim's survival. It manifests itself in the transformation, subtraction, destruction, retention or distraction of objects, personal documents, goods and values, patrimonial rights or economic resources destined to satisfy the victim's needs and may include damage to the victim's common or personal property. (Mexico 2023, 30)
[2] Encyclopaedia Britannica defines ejido as a "traditional [Indigenous] system of land tenure that combines communal ownership with individual use" wherein, "[i]n most cases the cultivated land is divided into separate family holdings, which cannot be sold although they can be handed down to heirs" (2011-12-15).
References
Bertelsmann Stiftung. 2024. "Mexico Country Report." Bertelsmann Stiftung's Transformation Index (BTI) 2024. [Accessed 2024-07-15]
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 2024-06-03. Vanessa Buschschlüter. "Mexico Elects Claudia Sheinbaum as First Female President." [Accessed 2024-09-05]
Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2011-12-15. "Ejido." [Accessed 2024-09-06]
Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad (IMCO). 2024-07-19. Correspondence from a representative to the Research Directorate.
Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad (IMCO). 2024-05. Estados #ConLupaDeGénero 2024. [Accessed 2024-09-09]
Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad (IMCO). N.d. "Quiénes somos." [Accessed 2024-09-10]
International Monetary Fund (IMF). 2023-11-01. "Gender Participation Gaps, Fiscal Policies, and Legal Impediments to Women Empowerment: A Deep Dive on Gender Issues in Mexico." IMF Staff Country Reports. Vol. 2023, No. 357. [Accessed 2024-07-11]
Mexico. 2024-06. "Quinta Presidencia del Siglo: Una Mujer." Cámara Periodismo Legislativo. No. 8. [Accessed 2024-09-06]
Mexico. 2024-05-22. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). "Encuesta nacional de la dinámica demográfica (ENADID) 2023." [Accessed 2024-07-16]
Mexico. 2023-09-27. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). "Estadísticas de divorcios (ED) 2022." [Accessed 2024-07-16]
Mexico. 2023-07-26. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares 2022 (ENIGH). [Accessed 2024-09-03]
Mexico. 2023-05-08. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). "Estadísticas a propósito del día de la madre (10 de mayo). Datos nacionales." [Accessed 2024-07-16]
Mexico. 2023. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). Violence Against Women in Mexico: National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships. ENDIREH 2021. [Accessed 2024-05-14]
Mexico. [2019]. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). "National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH). 2018." [Accessed 2024-09-10]
Mexico. N.d. IMSS-BIENESTAR. "Inicio." [Accessed 2024-08-30]
Mexico City, Comisión de Derechos Humanos de la Ciudad de Mexico (CDHCM). 2024-07-17. Correspondence from a representative to the Research Directorate.
Mexico City. N.d. Comisión de Derechos Humanos de la Ciudad de Mexico (CDHCM). "Presentación." [Accessed 2024-09-12]
Nexos. 2019-08-06. Iliana Yaschine. "El desafortunado fin de Prospera." [Accessed 2024-07-17]
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2024-02-27. OECD Economic Surveys: Mexico 2024. [Accessed 2024-07-15]
Talamas Marcos, Miguel Ángel. 2023-09-18. "The Challenges of Being a Single Mother in Latin America and the Caribbean." Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). [Accessed 2024-07-15]
Trejo Martínez, Emma. 2022-05-02. "Jefas de familia madres trabajando a tiempo completo." Cámara Periodismo Legislativo. No. 129. [Accessed 2024-07-16]
United States (US). 2024-04-22. Department of State. "Mexico." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2023. [Accessed 2024-07-11]
Yucatán. 2024-07-17. Secretaría de las Mujeres (Semujeres). Correspondence from a representative to the Research Directorate.
Additional Sources Consulted
Oral sources: Alternativas Pacíficas; Casa de Apoyo a la Mujer; Casa Gaviota; Centro de Estudios de Apoyo para la Mujer; Comunicación e Información de la Mujer; Fondo Semillas; Fundación Jalisciense Para el Desarrollo de la Mujer; Indignación; Mérida – Instituto Municipal de la Mujer; Mexico – Coordinación de Asuntos Internacionales; Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos, Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminación, Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres, Secretaria de Bienestar, Secretaria de Salud; Mexico City – Secretaria de las Mujeres; Mi Valedor; Mujeres Mexicanas con Discapacidad; Nuestras Realidades; professor at a Mexican university whose research focuses socioeconomics; professor of economics at a Mexican university; Red Nacional de Refugios; UN – UN Women.
Internet sites, including: Amnesty International; Atlantic Council; Consejo Nacional para Prevenir la Discriminación; EU – EU Agency for Asylum; Hispanics in Philanthropy; Homeless World Cup Foundation; Human Rights Watch; InSight Crime; Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre; Open Government Partnership; Reuters; The Shift; The Washington Post; Women's Media Center.