Responses to Information Requests

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Overview
1.1 Demographic

According to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs' World Urbanization Prospects 2018, which is a collection of the "official" UN estimates and projections of the world's population (UN 2018-05-16a), the population of India was projected to be 1,383,198,000 in 2020 and 1,451,829,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16b).

The 2011 census of India [1] provides the following demographic data for India:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following religious composition of India:

(India 2021-01-21a)

1.2 Economic

According to India's Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) Consumer Price Index (CPI) [2] for March 2023, the national year-on-year inflation rate from March 2022 to March 2023 is 5.66 percent and the inflation rate for urban areas is 5.89 percent (India 2023-04-12, 1). In comparison, Statistics Canada reports a 4.3 percent increase in prices in the CPI from March 2022 to March 2023 (Canada 2023-04-18, 1). The MoSPI CPI for March 2023 states that the year-on-year inflation rate under the Consumer Food Price Index (CFPI) from March 2022 to March 2023 is 4.79 percent (India 2023-04-12, 1). The MoSPI estimates the 2022-2023 Nominal GDP [3] per capita as 196,716 Indian rupees (INR) [C$3,259], and the Real GDP [4] per capita as 115,490 INR [C$1,915] (India 2023-02-28, 4, 5). In comparison, the World Economic Outlook Database 2023 of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates the 2022 Canadian Nominal GDP per capita as C$71,697 and the Real GDP per capita as C$55,984 (IMF 2023-04-07).

The MoSPI annual report on the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator:

(India 2023-02-23, 89, 92, 109)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of labour force participation rate, worker population ratio, and unemployment rate by social group:

(India 2023-02-23, 115-117)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of the labour force participation rate, worker population ratio and unemployment rate by major religious group:

(India 2023-02-23, 118-120)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of unemployed persons aged 15 years and above by education level:

(India 2023-02-23, 109)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment":

(India 2023-02-23, 95-96)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage distribution of workers by industry for the top five industries:

(India 2023-02-23, 98)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of workers in the non-agriculture informal sector:

• Male workers: 67.7 percent urban, 75.2 percent rural and urban;
• Female workers: 55 percent urban, 58.4 percent rural and urban;
• All workers: 64.9 percent urban, 71.8 percent rural and urban (India 2023-02-23, 100).

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions:

(India 2023-02-23, 101)

1.3 Crime Rate

According to the 2021 crime rate report by India's National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) [12], a total of 6,096,319 cognizable crimes [13] were registered in 2021, compared to 6,601,285 in 2020, representing a decline of 7.6 percent (India 2022-08-27, xi). The same source indicates that of the 2021 cognizable crimes total, 3,663,360 were Indian Penal Code (IPC) crimes (60.1 percent) and 2,432,950 were Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes (39.9 percent) [14], representing a decline of 13.9 percent and 3.7 percent respectively compared to 2020 (India 2022-08-27, xi).

1.4 Access to Services
1.4.1 Access to Education

India's Ministry of Education notes that by law all children aged six through fourteen have the right to "free and compulsory education" (India 2021-07-14). In a report on India's education system for 2021-2022, the same source provides the following national enrollment numbers for students by school type:

(India [2022-11], 73-77)

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status of India:

(India 2021-01-19a)

According to a 2020 India reference guide published by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, citing the 2011 census, India's literacy rate is 73 percent overall, 80.9 percent for males and 64.6 percent for females (India 2020-02-19, 16). A Times of India article notes that India has the "largest" illiterate population in the world with over 25 percent of the population "still uneducated" (The Times of India 2022-08-14).

According to the 2021-2022 Ministry of Education report, India has "nearly" 1.489 million schools, "more than" 9.5 million teachers and "nearly" 265.2 million students of "pre-primary to higher secondary level from varied socio-economic backgrounds" (India [2022-11], 10).

1.4.2 Access to Health Care

A report on India's health system, authored by five health specialists in collaboration with the Secretariat of the Asia Pacific Observatory based in the WHO regional office for South-East Asia in New Delhi (Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 296, 297-298), states that "[h]ealth services in India are delivered by a diverse set of public, for-profit and not-for-profit private providers" (Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 37). The same source notes that "two-thirds of public health expenditure" is funded by state governments, and the remaining funding comes from the central government (Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 36). The India health system report also provides the following information:

The provision of personal curative health services is predominantly carried out by private providers. Nearly 70% of all outpatient visits, about 58% of all inpatient episodes, and approximately 90% of medicines dispensed, and diagnostic facilities in India are currently provided by either for-profit or not-for-profit providers in the private sector. However, the quality, cost and effectiveness of services vary considerably across providers. Government health services cover a large share of health prevention and promotion, medical education, and about 30% of all outpatient and 42% of inpatient services.

…

Physical access to and affordability of medicines, vaccines and diagnostic facilities are a primary concern. Government underfunding accompanied by weak procurement and logistics systems has meant that access to medicines and medical equipment in government health facilities remains poor. Exceptionally, a few Indian states have adequately funded and set up mechanisms for an efficient procurement and supply of medicines and diagnostics. In the private sector, physical access to medicines is easier, but the 'ability-to-pay' may inhibit access. Prices remain high for many essential medicines, leaving them out of reach for many households. (Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 2)

The same source, citing information from India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW), provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in India in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 128-129)

1.4.3 Access to Housing

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 estimates that the average household size in urban areas of India is 3.8 persons (India 2023-02-23, 132).

An opinion article by Sushmita Pati, a teacher at the Azim Premji University in Bengaluru, published by the Wire, an online publication in India, states that resident welfare associations, formed by homeowners, "often become vehicles of arbitrary and discriminatory rules as to who can rent in a neighbourhood and who cannot" and these rules are "more often than not" decided based upon the renter's caste, religion and marital status (Pati 2020-07-22). The same source notes that it is "extremely hard" for Muslim families and single women to rent in cities (Pati 2020-07-22). A New York Times article notes that working women who live alone in India's cities, including women who are single, divorced, widowed, or not cohabiting with their partners, "pay more for a narrower selection of housing" (The New York Times 2023-01-18).

2. Bengaluru (Capital City of the State of Karnataka)
2.1 Demographics

According to the city's official website, Bengaluru [the official name for Bangalore, also called Bengaluru Urban District] is the capital of Karnataka (Bengaluru Urban District n.d.). According to its official website, Bengaluru has a population of "over" ten million, and it is the third most populous city in India (Bengaluru Urban District n.d.).

The UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018 projected the population for the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" [15] of Bengaluru at 12,327,000 for 2020 and 14,395,000 for 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census of India provides the following demographic data for the Bengaluru Urban District:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source notes that the population of the Bruhat Bengalurur Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) [Bangalore City Corporation] and its outgrowth areas [16] is 8,495,492, with 4,420,006 males and 4,075,486 females (India 2021-01-21b).

The 2011 census provides the following religious composition of the Bengaluru Urban District:

(India 2021-01-21b)

An article from Hindustan Times, an English-language newspaper in India, citing an analysis of the 2011 Census conducted by a non-resident senior fellow of Brookings Institution and an associate professor of economics at the Indian Statistical Institute, notes that Bengaluru is among India's "most linguistically diverse cities" (2021-09-05). According to the article, the analysis also reports that Kannada, the official language of Bengaluru, is the "mother tongue" language of 44.62 percent of the city's population and identifies other "major" languages as Tamil, at 15 percent, Telugu at 14 percent, Urdu at 12 percent, Hindi at 6 percent, and Malayalam at 3 percent (Hindustan Times 2021-09-05). Information on the ethnic composition of Bengaluru could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

2.2 Labour Market
2.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Karnataka:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Karnataka:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of Karnataka:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

2.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers … by broad status in employment" for the State of Karnataka:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

The Economic Survey of Karnataka 2022-23 published by the Government of Karnataka estimates that Bengaluru's largest sectoral contribution to the "Gross District Domestic Product" (GDDP) is services, at 82.6 percent (Karnataka 2023-02, v, 25).

2.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of Karnataka from March 2022 to March 2023 is 5.32 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). The Economic Survey of Karnataka 2022-23 states that the 2021-2022 provisional per capita income in Bengaluru is 621,131 INR [C$10,310] (Karnataka 2023-02, 42).

The National Multidimensional Poverty Index (national MPI) [17] of the Government of India's National Institution of Transforming India (NITI Aayog) reports that 2.31 percent of the population in Bengaluru, based on data from the 2015-2016 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, ii, 110).

2.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB provides the following crime rates [18] for the metropolitan city of Bengaluru, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, 83-85, 160, 173, 197)

According to the same source, Bengaluru, with 6,066 theft cases reported in 2020, ranked fourth among 19 metropolitan cities (cities with a population of over 2 million), accounting for 2.4 percent of "total theft cases registered" under IPC crimes (India 2022-08-27, xviii, xxi).

2.4 Access to Services
2.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the BBMP and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The information in the following paragraph was provided by the website of the Government of Karnataka:

The website of the Government of Karnataka indicates that, according to the 2011 census, the literacy rate in Karnataka is 75.6 percent, which ranks ninth among states in India (Karnataka n.d.). The state has implemented the Right to Education Act [20]. The education system is divided into four categories, namely: school, graduate, technical, and higher education. Among pre-university colleges in the state, 1,202 are "government," 637 are "[government] aided," 1,936 "unaided," 165 "bifurcated," and 13 "corporation." There are also 413 government "first-grade colleges," as well as 290 nursing colleges (Karnataka n.d.).

The Ministry of Education report notes that for 2021-22, there are a total of 12,092,381 students enrolled in schools and 431,386 teachers in the state of Karnataka (India [2022-11], 27). The same source provides the following number of schools by level education for the state in the same reference year:

(India [2022-11], 31)

2.4.2 Access to Health Care

The report on India's health system, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Karnataka in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 128)

2.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Bengaluru was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of Karnataka is 3.4 persons (India 2023-02-23, 132).

A New York Times article, citing an interview with a single woman in Bengaluru who searched for an apartment with a married friend whose husband was working abroad, states that brokers requested that the women "promise to never bring men over. To never drink. To never, really, have a room of one's own" (2023-01-18). The same source indicates that "several" apartments were leased to families instead of the two women and that the single woman eventually found an apartment after a "difficult" search (The New York Times 2023-01-18). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3. Chennai (Capital City of the State of Tamil Nadu)
3.1 Demographics

The website of the Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) indicates that the expanded Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) comprises the districts of Chennai, Kancheepuram and Chengalpattu, as well as parts of the district of Thiruvallur and parts of Arakkonam Taluk in the district of Ranipet (CMDA n.d.). A 2017 district profile by the district of Chennai, citing the provisional 2011 census, notes that the "urban agglomeration" of Chennai, consisting of the city and its suburban areas, had a population of "approximately 8.9 million" (Chennai District 2017, 1).

According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the projected population for the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Chennai is 10,971,000 in 2020 and 12,336,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census of India provides the following demographic data for the Chennai District:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following religious composition of the Chennai District:

(India 2021-01-21c)

According to the Ariyalur District Administration website, Tamil is the "official language" of the state and is spoken by the "majority" of the population (Ariyalur n.d.). According to Yatra, an online travel company in India (Yatra n.d.a), the "primary" spoken language in Chennai is Tamil, a "majority" of the population is "well-versed" in English, and a "minor section" of the population speak Telugu and Malayalam (Yatra n.d.b). Information on the ethnic composition of Chennai could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3.2 Labour Market
3.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Tamil Nadu:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Tamil Nadu:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under given employment conditions in the State of Tamil Nadu:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

3.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of Tamil Nadu:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

3.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of Tamil Nadu from March 2022 to March 2023 is 6.68 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 0.96 percent of the population in Chennai, based on data from the 2015-2016 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 180).

3.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB report provides the following crime rates for the metropolitan city of Chennai, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, 83-85, 160, 173, 197, 267)

3.4 Access to Services
3.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the district of Chennai:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The Ministry of Education report notes that for 2021-22, there are a total of 12,830,951 students enrolled in schools and 569,920 teachers in the State of Tamil Nadu (India [2022-11], 27). The same source provides the following number of schools by education level for the state in the same reference year:

(India [2022-11], 31)

3.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Tamil Nadu in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 129)

3.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Chennai was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of Tamil Nadu is 3.2 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

The information in the following two paragraphs was provided by the founder of the Information and Resource Centre for the Deprived Urban Communities (IRCDUC) [21] in an interview with the Research Directorate:

Landlords are not allowed to explicitly advertise for non-transgender or non-vegetarian people; however, they are allowed to rent to whoever they want. Residence Welfare Associations (RWA) [similar to boards of residential buildings] will "restrict" housing to specific groups. The "most affluent communities" will have specific requirements, such as belonging to a specific caste and or being vegetarian, with a "reluctance" to rent to religious minorities. These communities "would not be open minded" to rent to transgender individuals or sex workers.

Marginalized groups are "left behind" in the Tamil Nadu Regulation of Rights and Responsibilities of Landlords and Tenants Act, 2017 because it does not address or regulate the social stigma and social norms of rental housing (IRCDUC 2023-05-15).

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4. National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi
4.1 Demographics

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for the NCT of Delhi:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following statistics on the religious composition of the NCT of Delhi:

(India 2021-01-21a)

The government of the NCT of Delhi states that the "[p]rincipal" languages of Delhi are Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, and English (Delhi n.d.a). Information on the ethnic composition of Delhi could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.2 Labour Market
4.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the NCT:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the NCT:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the NCT:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

4.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers … by broad status in employment" in the NCT:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

The Government of the NCT of Delhi estimates the following sector contributions in the territory economy in 2021-2022:

• Primary Sector ("comprising of [c]rops and [l]ivestock, [f]orestry and [l]ogging, [f]ishing, [m]ining and [q]uarrying"): 2.28 percent of the economy;
• Secondary Sector ("comprising of [m]anufacturing, [e]lectricity, [g]as, [w]ater [s]upply [and] [o]ther [u]tility [s]ervices and [c]onstruction"): 13.78 percent of the economy;
• Tertiary Sector ("comprising of [t]rade, [h]otels [and] [r]estaurants, [r]ailways, [t]ransport, [s]torage, [c]ommunication, [f]inancial [s]ervices, [r]eal [e]state, [o]wnership of [d]wellings [and] [o]ther [p]rofessional [s]ervices, [p]ublic [a]dministration and [o]ther [s]ervices"): 83.94 percent of the economy (Delhi 2022-03, viii, ix).

4.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the NCT from March 2022 to March 2023 is 3.44 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). The Government of the NCT of Delhi estimates the 2021-22 per capita income of the territory as 401,982 INR [C$6,653] (Delhi 2022-03, vii).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 4.8 percent of the population in urban Delhi, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 226).

4.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB report provides the following crime rates for Delhi City, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, vi, 83-85, 160, 173, 197, 267)

The same source indicates that Delhi has the "[m]aximum" number of reported "theft cases" out of 19 metropolitan cities in 2020, with 198,133 cases accounting for 78.3 percent of "total theft cases registered" under IPC crimes (India 2022-08-27, xxi).

4.4 Access to Services
4.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status of the NCT of Delhi:

(India 2021-01-19a)

The Education Department of the NCT of Delhi notes that it "endeavors to implement" the national policy that all children up to age 14 receive "free and compulsory education" (Delhi n.d.b). The same source provides the following:

The educational facilities at school level are provided in stages i.e. pre-primary, primary, middle, secondary and senior secondary level. Pre-primary and primary education is mainly the responsibility of the local bodies. Middle, Secondary and Senior Secondary education is primarily looked after by Directorate of Education, Government of Delhi. Although pre-primary and primary education is mainly the responsibility of the local bodies, the Govt. of Delhi has converted its 449 schools into composite schools, now known as Sarvodaya Vidyalayas having classes from I to XII. New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC), though mainly concerned with primary education, is also running a select number of middle, secondary, senior secondary schools in its area at present. Apart from this, a number of private organizations receiving Grant-in-Aid from Government are also engaged in imparting education at all levels of schooling. Besides these, recognized unaided schools are also being run in Delhi by registered trusts and societies. (Delhi n.d.b)

The Ministry of Education report notes that there are a total of 4,572,107 students enrolled in schools and 151,600 teachers in the NCT of Delhi in 2021-2022 (India [2022-11], 27). The same source provides the following information on the number of schools by level of education for 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

4.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Delhi in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 128)

4.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Delhi was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the NCT of Delhi is 3.5 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

The New York Times, citing an interview with a broker in South Delhi, states that "few landlords rent to single women because they oppose their separation from family, or fear judgment if something goes wrong" (2023-01-18). The same source, citing an interview with a Muslim woman in Delhi, reports "the hostel where she was living would not let her back in" when she returned after curfew (The New York Times 2023-01-18). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

5. Hyderabad (Capital City of the State of Telangana)
5.1 Demographics

According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the population projection of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Hyderabad is 10,004,000 in 2020 and 11,338,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-19b)

Information on population size of individuals aged zero to six could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the religious composition of the GHMC and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-21d)

According to the News Minute, "a digital news platform reporting and writing on issues in India," particularly on southern India (The News Minute n.d.), Telugu and Urdu are the first and second official languages of Telangana state respectively (The News Minute 2017-10-17). Information on the ethnic composition of Hyderabad could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

5.2 Labour Market
5.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Telangana:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Telangana:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of Telangana:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

5.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of Telangana:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

5.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of Telangana from March 2022 to March 2023 is 7.95 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). The Government of Telangana's report on its socio-economic outlook for 2023 indicates that the per capita income for the state is 3.17 lakhs [equivalent to 317,000 INR or C$5,277] (Telangana 2023-05-24, 3).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 4.27 percent of the population in Hyderabad, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 186).

5.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB report provides the following crime rates for the metropolitan city of Hyderabad, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, 83-85, 160, 173, 197, 267)

5.4 Access to Services
5.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the GHMC and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The 2023 socio-economic report by the government of Telangana notes that elementary school comprises grades 1 to 8, secondary school comprises grades 9 to 10 and higher secondary school comprises grades 11 to 12 (Telangana 2023-05-24, 145) The same source, citing the Telangana Department of School Education, provides the following statistics on schools by the type of management for 2021-2022:

(Telangana 2023-05-24, 145).

The same source notes that out of all enrolled students in 2021-2022, 50.23 percent were enrolled in private schools, while 49.77 percent were enrolled in government schools (Telangana 2023-05-24, 146).

The socio-economic report by the Telangana government notes that for 2022-2023, there were 384,021 students enrolled in 1,073 "[d]egree colleges" and 948,321 students enrolled in 2,963 "[j]unior [c]olleges" (Telangana 2023-05-24, 153).

The Ministry of Education provides the following information on the number of schools by level of education in Telangana state for 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

5.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Telangana in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 129)

5.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Hyderabad was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of Telangana is 3.4 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

6. Kolkata (Capital City of the State of West Bengal)
6.1 Demographics

The website of the Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA), a "statutory body" under the West Bengal government, indicates that the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) is the "metropolitan outfit" of Kolkata city, comprising the districts of Kolkata [Kolkata Municipal Corporation], Howrah, Hooghly, Nadia, North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas (KMDA n.d). The same source, citing the 2011 census, notes that the KMA has a population of "around" 15.87 million, and a "projected" population of 21.1 million for 2025 (KMDA n.d). According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the population projection of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Kolkata is 14,850,000 in 2020 and 15,845,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for the Kolkata District:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following statistics on the religious composition of the Kolkata District:

(India 2021-01-21e)

Encyclopaedia Britannica indicates that the "main" language spoken in West Bengal is Bengali, and other languages spoken include Hindi, Santali, Urdu, and Nepali (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023-04-18a). The same source notes that Bengali and English are the languages of "administration" of the state (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023-04-18a). Yatra indicates that Bengali and Hindi are the "most spoken" language of Kolkata (Yatra n.d.c). Information on the ethnic composition of Kolkata could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

6.2 Labour Market
6.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of West Bengal:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of West Bengal:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of West Bengal:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

6.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of West Bengal:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

Encyclopaedia Britannica indicates that "two-fifths of the workers in Kolkata are employed in trade and commerce," and the "Calcutta Stock Exchange plays an important part in the organized financial market of the country" (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2023-04-18b).

6.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of West Bengal from March 2022 to March 2023 is 4.84 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 2.8 percent of the population in Kolkata, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 210).

6.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB report provides the following crime rate for the metropolitan city of Kolkata, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, 83-85, 160, 173, 197, 267)

According to the same source, Kolkata ranks second among 19 metropolitan cities with the "highest [c]harge-sheeting [r]ate" of 93.9 percent for IPC crimes (India 2022-08-27, xxii).

6.4 Access to Services
6.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the district of Kolkata:

(India 2021-01-19b)

According to the website of the government of West Bengal, education is offered by both public and private institutions in this state (West Bengal n.d.). The same source provides the following information:

Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though Urdu is also used, especially in Central Kolkata. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS) or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams, namely liberal arts, commerce or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

…

In West Bengal there are one central university, twenty state universities and one deemed university. (West Bengal n.d.)

The Ministry of Education notes that there are 18,733,367 students enrolled in schools and 569,920 teachers in the state of West Bengal (India [2022-11], 27).

The same source provides the following number of schools by level of education for the state in 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

6.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in West Bengal in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 129)

6.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Kolkata was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of West Bengal is 3.4 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

The information in the following paragraph was provided by a property lawyer, who has worked in Kolkata since 2013, in correspondence with the Research Directorate:

There are no legal barriers for specific groups, religious minorities, sexual or gender minorities to rent or own properties in Kolkata. There is a "classification" of properties that is based on income groups, such as: High-Income Groups (HIG), Low-Income Groups (LIG) and Middle-Income Groups (MIG). Properties can only be bought by people in the income group; however, there is no limitation to rent out such properties (Property Lawyer 2023-05-12).

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

7. Ludhiana (State of Punjab)
7.1 Demographics

According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the population projection of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Ludhiana, which is based on the census data for the Ludhiana Municipal Corporation, is 1,857,000 in 2020 and 2,029,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for Ludhiana Municipal Corporation:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following statistics on the religious composition of Ludhiana Municipal Corporation:

(India 2021-01-21f)

According to Yatra, Punjabi is the official language of Ludhiana, as well as the "most widely spoken language"; a "significant number" of people are "well-versed" in English and Hindi (Yatra n.d.d). Encyclopaedia Britannica indicates that Punjabi is the official language of Punjab; "the most widely spoken" languages are Punjabi and Hindi, and "many" also speak English and Urdu (2023-04-30). Information on the ethnic composition of Ludhiana could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

7.2 Labour Market
7.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Punjab:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Punjab:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of Punjab:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

7.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of Punjab:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

Information on the distribution of employment by sector in Ludhiana and the state of Punjab could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

7.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of Punjab from March 2022 to March 2023 is 7.37 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). The Punjab Economic Survey 2022-23 published by the Department of Planning of the Government of Punjab reports that the per capita income as of 2019-20 in Ludhiana was 180,109 INR [C$ 2,983] (Punjab [2023], 191).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 3.83 percent of the population in Ludhiana, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 164).

7.3 Crime Rates

Information on the crime rate of Ludhiana could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The NCRB provides the following crime rates for Punjab State, based on a mid-year population projection for Punjab state in 2021 by the National Commission on Population:

(India 2022-08-27, 9-11, 157, 163, 183, 211)

7.4 Access to Services
7.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the Ludhiana Municipal Corporation:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The same source provides the following number of schools by level of education for the state in 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

7.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Punjab in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 129)

7.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Ludhiana was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of Punjab is 3.9 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

8. Mumbai (Capital City of the State of Maharashtra)
8.1 Demographics

The website of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) indicates that the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) comprises the municipal corporations of Greater Mumbai [Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation], Thane, Kalyan-Dombivali, Navi Mumbai, Ulhasnagar, Bhiwandi-Nizamapur, Vasai-Virar, Mira-Bhayandar and Panvel, as well as nine other municipal councils (MMRDA n.d.). The same source, citing the 2011 census, indicates that the MMR has a population of 23,598,000 (MMRDA n.d.). According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the population projection of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Mumbai is 20,411,000 in 2020 and 22,089,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The website of the Mumbai Suburban District indicates that Greater Mumbai is divided into the districts of Mumbai City and Mumbai Suburban (Mumbai Suburban District n.d.a).

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for Greater Mumbai Municipal Corporation:

(India 2022-05-06)

The same source provides the following statistics on the religious composition of Greater Mumbai Municipal Corporation:

(India 2021-01-21g)

An article written by a linguistic anthropologist and published by Scroll.in, an Indian news website, reports that "around" 45 percent of the population of Mumbai speak Marathi as their first language, "slightly under" 20 percent speak Gujarati as their first language, and "slightly under" 20 percent speak Hindi as their first language; other spoken languages are Tamil, Sindhi, Kannada, and Konkani (Scroll.in 2018-02-05). According to the website of the Mumbai Suburban District, the four "primarily" spoken languages throughout the district are Marathi, Hindi, English and Gujarati (Mumbai Suburban District n.d.b). Information on the ethnic composition of Mumbai could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

8.2 Labour Market
8.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Maharashtra:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Maharashtra:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of Maharashtra:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

8.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of Maharashtra:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

According to the Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2022-23 published by the Planning Department of the Maharashtra government, the following estimates represent the sector distribution in the state economy in 2021-22:

• Services: 56.7 percent
• Industry: 31.2 percent
• Agriculture and "'allied activities'": 12.1 percent (Maharashtra 2023-03, 31).

Sources describe the city of Mumbai as the "financial capital" of India (Maharashtra 2023-03, 1; Nikkei Asia 2021-11-05; BBC 2022-12-09).

8.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of Maharashtra state from March 2022 to March 2023 is 6.21 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). The Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2022-23 estimates the 2021-22 per capita income in the state is 215,233 INR [C$3,569] (Maharashtra 2023-03, 31).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 3.59 percent of the population in Mumbai, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 128).

8.3 Crime Rates

The NCRB report provides the following crime rate for the metropolitan city of Mumbai, based on the 2011 census population of the city:

(India 2022-08-27, 83-85, 160, 173, 197, 267)

According to the same source, Mumbai ranked third for theft cases reported among 19 metropolitan cities in 2020, with 7,820 cases accounting for 3.1 percent of "total theft cases registered" under IPC crimes in 2020 (India 2022-08-27, xxi).

8.4 Access to Services
8.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the Greater Mumbai Municipal Corporation:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The Ministry of Education notes that there are 22,586,695 students enrolled in schools and 748,589 teachers in the state of Maharashtra in 2021-22 (India [2022-11], 27). The same source provides the following number of schools by level of education in the state for 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

8.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Maharashtra in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 129)

8.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Mumbai was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of Maharashtra is 3.9 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a partner at a law firm in Mumbai, whose practice includes real estate law, stated that there are no "legal barriers" for religious minorities, sexual and gender minorities, single women, or ethnic minorities to rent any apartment or buy any home (Partner 2023-05-13). However, the same source added that landlords and owners "exercise discretion in letting out premises to tenants, inter alia, on the following grounds": religion; gender; marital status, etc. (Partner 2023-05-13). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

9. Thiruvananthapuram (Capital City of the State of Kerala)
9.1 Demographics

The website of the Thiruvananthapuram District indicates that Thiruvananthapuram City is a part of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of the Thiruvananthapuram Metropolitan Area (Thiruvananthapuram n.d.a). According to the UN World Urbanization Prospects 2018, the population projection of the "[u]rban [a]gglomeration" of Thiruvananthapuram is 2,585,000 in 2020 and 3,073,000 in 2025 (UN 2018-05-16c).

The 2011 census provides the following demographic data for Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation:

The same source provides the following statistics on the religious composition for the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-21h)

According to the website of the Thiruvananthapuram District, Malayalam is the language of the district (Thiruvananthapuram n.d.b). Yatra notes that Malayalam, English and Hindi are the "predominant" languages of the city, and Tamil is also "widely spoken" (Yatra n.d.e). Information on the ethnic composition of Thiruvananthapuram could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

9.2 Labour Market
9.2.1 Employment Rates and Conditions

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the percentage of persons aged 15 and above for a given employment indicator in the State of Kerala:

(India 2023-02-23, 191, 196, 201)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of individuals aged 15 and above who are unemployed by education level in the State of Kerala:

(India 2023-02-23, 270-275)

The PLFS provides the following statistics on the percentage of regular wage/salaried employees in the non-agricultural sector working under the given employment conditions in the State of Kerala:

(India 2023-02-23, 383-384)

9.2.2 Economic Sector/Main Labour Sectors

The PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022 provides the following statistics on the "[p]ercentage distribution of workers… by broad status in employment" for the State of Kerala:

(India 2023-02-23, 207-212)

9.2.3 Poverty Indicators

According to the MoSPI CPI for March 2023, the year-on-year inflation rate in urban areas of the State of Kerala from March 2022 to March 2023 is 5.45 percent (India 2023-04-12, 6). In a report by the Department of Economics and Statistics of the Kerala government, the estimated per capita income for the district of Thiruvananthapuram in 2021-22 is 230,384 INR [C$3,814] (Kerala 2022-11-28, 11).

The national MPI of the Government of India's NITI Aayog reports that 1.08 percent of the population in Thiruvananthapuram, based on data from the 2015-16 National Family and Health Survey, are "multidimensionally poor" (India 2021-11, 116).

9.3 Crime Rates

Information on the crime rate for Thiruvananthapuram could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The NCRB provides the following crime rates for Kerala State, based on a mid-year population projection for Kerala state in 2021 by the National Commission on Population:

(India 2022-08-27, 9-11, 157, 163, 183, 211)

9.4 Access to Services
9.4.1 Access to Education

The 2011 census provides the following statistics on the literacy status for the Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation and its outgrowth areas:

(India 2021-01-19b)

The Ministry of Education notes that there are 6,423,120 students enrolled in schools and 268,473 teachers in the Kerala state in 2021-2022 (India [2022-11], 27).

The same source provides the following number of schools by level of education in the state for 2021-2022:

(India [2022-11], 31)

9.4.2 Access to Health Care

The India health system report, citing the MoHFW, provides the following information on "functioning government health infrastructure and bed position" in Kerala in 2019:

(Selvaraj, et al. 2022-03-30, 128)

9.4.3 Access to Housing

Information on access to housing in Thiruvananthapuram was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to the PLFS for July 2021 to June 2022, the estimated household size in urban areas of the State of Kerala is 3.7 (India 2023-02-23, 132).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] According to the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, the most recent census of India was completed in 2011; the next census, originally scheduled for 2021, was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic (India [2021]). According to a 2023 article by the BBC, the next census has been "delayed, with no clarity on when it will be held" (2023-01-18).

[2] Statistics Canada defines the Consumer Price Index (CPI) as a measure to monitor changes in prices by "comparing through time the cost of a fixed basket of consumer goods and services" (Canada 2023-02-20, 7). The CPI is the "standard measure of inflation used by most Canadians" (Canada 2023-02-20, 7).

[3] The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines the Nominal GDP as "GDP given in current prices, without adjustment for inflation" (2023).

[4] Insider defines the Real GDP as the measure of all "goods and services produced in a nation adjusted for inflation or deflation" (2022-07-20).

[5] The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) of India defines the Labour Force Participation Rate "as the percentage of persons in the labour force in the population" (India 2023-02-23, 65). The labour force is defined as individuals who are working or "'seeking or available for work'" (India 2023-02-23, 51).

[6] The MoSPI defines the Worker Population Ratio "as the percentage of employed persons in the population" (India 2023-02-23, 65).

[7] The MoSPI defines the Unemployment Rate "as the percentage of persons unemployed among the persons in the labour force" (India 2023-02-23, 65).

[8] According to the Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT), the Government of India uses the term "[s]cheduled [t]ribe" (ST) to refer to Adivasi and other Indigenous people (Australia 2020-12-10, 8).

[9] According to DFAT, the Government of India uses the term "[s]cheduled [c]aste" (SC) to refer to Dalits (people who were "once considered 'untouchable'") (2020-12-10, 7, 8).

[10] According to DFAT, the Government of India uses "other backward classes" (OBC) to refer to other "educationally or socially disadvantaged" castes that do not fit into the SC or ST categories (Australia 2020-12-10, 8).

[11] The "specified" social security benefits measured in the MoSPI Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) includes pension, gratuity, and healthcare/maternity benefits (India 2023-02-23, 101).

[12] Police from the relevant states, Union Territories (UTs), central armed police forces or central police organizations provided the statistics in the 2021 crime rate report by the India National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) (India 2022-08-27, v).

[13] The NCRB notes that a cognizable offence is a category of crimes for which the police "may investigate without the order of a magistrate and effect arrest without [a] warrant," such as murder, kidnapping, and rape (India 2016-07, 15).

[14] The NCRB indicates that cognizable offences are "broadly categorised as those falling either under the 'Indian Penal Code (IPC)' or under the 'Special and Local Laws (SLL)'" (India 2016-07, 15). A list of cognizable offenses falling under the IPC and SLL is available online (India 2016-07, 15-16).

[15] For the World Urbanization Prospects 2018 report, the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs defines an "'urban agglomeration'" as the "population contained within the contours of a contiguous territory inhabited at urban density levels without regard to administrative boundaries," which "usually" includes the population of a city and its "adjacent" suburban areas (UN 2018-05-16a).

[16] According to the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, an outgrowth of a town is an area outside the "boundary of the [s]tatutory town but falling within the revenue boundaries of the adjoining village or villages, forming a contiguous urban spread" (India 2018-11-12, 2).

[17] The National Multidimensional Poverty Index (national MPI), developed by the Government of India's National Institution for Transforming India (NITI Aayog) in partnership with the UNDP and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative Department of International Development at the University of Oxford, is based on whether individuals or households are deprived from a total of twelve indicators across three "equally weighted dimensions": health (nutrition, child mortality, and antenatal care); education (years of schooling and school attendance); and standard of living (cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, assets, and bank account) (India 2021-11, 6, 7, 15).

[18] According to the NCRB, the crime rate is the number of crime incidences per 100,000 people (India 2022-08-27, 1).

[19] According to the NCRB, the charge sheet rate is the percentage of cases in which a charge sheet was submitted out of the total number of cases "disposed o[f] by Police" (India 2022-08-27, 481).

[20] According to RightToEducation.in, the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009, also known as the Right to Education Act (RTE), is a law enacted in 2009, which "describes the modalities of the importance of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India" as provided by article 21(a) of the Constitution (n.d.).

[21] According to its website, the Information and Resource Centre for the Deprived Urban Communities (IRCDUC) is a civil society organization in Tamil Nadu working on the land and housing rights of the "deprived urban communities" (n.d.)

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Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Amnesty International; Association of Professional Property Consultants of Chennai; Association of Property Professionals Delhi-NCR; Association of Realtors Punjab; The Association of Real Estate Agents; Bangalore Apartments' Federation; Bangalore Realtors Association of India; Confederation of Real Estate Developers' Associations of India; Hyderabad Realtors Association; journalist at an Indian newspaper who reports on housing in Kolkata; journalists at Indian newspapers who report on housing in Bengaluru (2); journalists at Indian newspapers who report on housing in Chennai (2); journalists at Indian newspapers who report on housing in Hyderabad (2); Karnataka – Housing Department, Rajiv Gandhi Housing Corporation Limited; Kerala – Kerala State Housing Board; Kerala Realtors Association; lawyers in Bengaluru who practise property law and real estate law (2); lawyers who practise property law and real estate law in Hyderabad (3); lawyers who practise property law in Ludhiana (2); lawyers who practise property law and real estate law in New Delhi (2); lawyers who practise property law and real estate law in Thiruvananthapuram (3); lawyers who practise real estate law in Chennai (2); lawyer who practises real estate law in Kolkata; lawyer who practises real estate law in Mumbai; Maharashtra – Housing Department; Property management and development company in Chennai; Punjab – Department of Housing and Urban Development; real estate advertising company in India; realtor based in Chennai; Realtors & Estate Consultants Association of Kolkata; Tamil Nadu – Housing and Urban Development Department; Telangana – Telangana State Housing Corporation Limited; West Bengal – Housing Department.

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