Responses to Information Requests

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Overview

According to the US CIA World Factbook, due to the "poor condition of fixed-line infrastructure" in Somalia, "operators have concentrated on mobile connectivity" and the "development of LTE [Long Term Evolution] services to provide mobile data and broadband services" (US 2023-01-24). A report by the UN's Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) indicates that the Information Communication Technology (ICT) market "consists of 11 operators and 4 million mobile connections, but tele-density (i.e. fixed line) is only about 7 per cent and the proportion of internet users is only about 1 per cent" (UN 2021-01, 19). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a research analyst at the Africa Center for Strategy & Policy [The Africa Center for Strategic Progress], a "non-partisan think tank" based in Washington, DC (Africa Center for Strategy & Policy n.d.), stated that Somalia has developed "advanced telecommunications in terms of services, technology [and] affordability," as compared to neighboring countries (Research Analyst 2023-02-04). However, according to the OCHA report, "most rural areas of the country still lack good mobile and internet service" (UN 2021-01, 19). According to a blog post on the website of Datafication and Digital Rights [1], "[e]ven though telecommunication services may be available in rural areas, it is not clear how people are accessing and benefiting from services such as mobile internet" (Ali 2021-01-19).

2. Legislation

According to the US CIA World Factbook, Somalia passed a National Communications Law in 2017, which "aimed at setting a legal and regulatory framework for the telecoms sector" (US 2023-01-24). An English or French translation of the National Communications Act could not be acquired or found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3. National Communication Authority (NCA)

On its website, Somalia's NCA describes itself as

the regulatory body for the communications sector in Somalia. NCA was established through the Communications Act of 2017 and its mandate is to regulate the Communications sector including telecommunications, Internet, broadcasting, [i]nformation, and [c]ommunications [t]echnology, [and] eCommerce services.

The NCA is responsible for facilitating the development of the ICT sector, enabling and ensuring fair and sustainable competition, carrier interconnection, transparency in the implementation of the Communication Law, protecting consumer interest[s] and rights, and maintaining its role as an independent regulator. (Somalia n.d.a)

The NCA also aims to ensure "wide availability of ICT services at reasonable prices, facilitat[e] access to public services and resources, [and] enhanc[e] educational and social development while providing broadband connectivity to all Somali citizens" (Somalia n.d.b).

In an interview with the Research Directorate, a UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) representative in Somalia noted that the government of Somalia established the NCA with the "support of the World Bank and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) to regulate and support" telecommunications in the country (UN 2023-02-07).

4. Prevalence of Mobile Phone Usage

The World Bank's "[m]ost [r]ecent" data [as of February 2023] indicates that in 2021, the total number of mobile cellular subscriptions in Somalia was 8,844,000 (2021a) or 52 per 100 inhabitants (2021b). The UNIDO representative stated that people "get displaced" from rural to urban areas due to "climate crisis shocks," which increases their "interaction [with] and exposure to mobile phones" (UN 2023-02-07). According to an article published in Quartz, an international online business publication with headquarters in New York (Quartz n.d.), the "biggest challenge for Somalia's telecoms industry is the transition away from analog phones to smartphones" (2022-04-08). According to Hormuud Telecom, Somalia's "largest" telecommunications provider (VOA 2021-02-27; The Africa Report 2021-07-09), "nine out of ten Somalis own a mobile phone, and 70% of the population is connected to a telephone network" (2022-12-05). According to the UNIDO representative, the "price of SIM cards is cheap in Somalia compared with its neighboring countries" (UN 2023-02-07).

According to the NCA, it has issued a licensing notice to all incumbent mobile network operators and service providers in Somalia (Somalia [2021]). The same source indicates that the NCA has issued licences to seven telecom operators (one conditional), one international communications infrastructure services provider, and two Application and Services Providers (ASP) in Somalia (Somalia [2021]). According to 2020 data cited by the CIA World Factbook, "seven networks compete for customers in the mobile sector" in the country (US 2023-01-24).

5. Prevalence of Internet Connectivity, Including Through Mobile Data

According to the blog post published on the website of Datafication and Digital Rights, "official statistics" indicate that "only around 15%" of the Somali population has access to the Internet (Ali 2021-01-19). The Research Analyst noted that there are "challenges" regarding "Internet penetration" in the country and that in relation to mobile data and wireless telecommunications, private companies have invested in fiber optics (2023-02-04). Quartz, citing an interview with the CEO of Hormuud, indicates that Hormuud is "currently investing heavily in fiber optics to ensure that 'every family has access to the internet"' (2022-04-08). Hormuud Telecom reports that it provides "Fiber to the Home and Office (FTTH) internet" as a "revolutionary internet service that uses fiber optic cables to deliver lightning-fast speeds" straight to users (2023-01-03). The UNIDO representative noted that "the speed of the internet is quite good in Somalia" (UN 2023-02-07).

Developing Telecoms, an "online news portal for telecoms in emerging markets" (Developing Telecoms n.d.), reports that Hormuud "estimates that around 50% of urban populations" in Somalia "have access to 4G data while slightly over 60% have access to 3G" (2021-04-22).

According to the CIA World Factbook, the telecom market in Somalia "has flourished" and rates are "among the lowest" in Africa (US 2023-01-24). The Research Analyst similarly indicated that "Somalia is one of the cheapest in terms of price of the Internet across sub-Saharan African countries because of the lower tax (or even [no tax]), giving more people [the ability] to afford [to use] the Internet" (2023-02-04). Cable.co.uk, a UK-based website which enables people to "compare broadband, TV, landline, and mobile packages" (Cable.co.uk n.d.), reports that in 2022, Somalia ranked fourth on the Africa mobile data pricing index and that the average price of one gigabyte (1GB) of mobile Internet data was US$0.63 (2022). However, according to the Research Analyst, "this lower price does not mean that everyone [can] afford it due to the per capita [income] of ordinary citizens" (2023-02-04).

6. Mobile Money Regulations

The Central Bank of Somalia's Mobile Money Regulations, 2019 provide the following:

PART II - LICENSING

6. Application for license to provide mobile money service

1. A person who seeks to provide mobile money services shall apply to the Central Bank for a license in the form prescribed in the First Schedule to these Regulations.
2. The application shall be made to the Central Bank of Somalia.
3. The application shall be submitted together with-
   
   1. An Oath and Declaration set out in the Second Schedule;
   2. application fee of USD 5,000 and
   3. license fee of USD 25,000.…

7. Granting of license

1. Where the Central Bank has received the application document, the Oath and Declaration and the required fees, the Central Bank may within Ninety days issue a license with or without conditions.
2. The Central Bank may verify the existence of the documents specified in the Oath and Declaration during onsite inspection of a mobile money service provider or may request for their submission after the license has been issued.
   Where the Central Bank declines to grant a license to an applicant, it shall state the reasons for its decision.
3. A license granted to an applicant shall not be transferable to another person.
4. A license granted under this Regulation shall be valid for one year and may be renewable annually; provided that a license granted in the course of a calendar year shall be valid up to 31st December of that year.

…

PART III – CONDUCT OF BUSINESS

9. Governance

A mobile money service provider shall establish adequate governance arrangements, which are effective and transparent, to ensure the integrity of the operations of its mobile money service.

…

A mobile money service provider shall-

1. formulate and implement policies and procedures for safe and efficient operation of its mobile money service; and
2. set up a separate business unit or division within which the mobile money service shall be operated.

10. Establishment of safe, secure and efficient mobile money service

1. A mobile money service provider shall establish internal controls, risk management, accounting and procedures; automated issuance of mobile money process; administrative controls, operational risk management with disaster recovery plans and business continuity arrangements, that demonstrate that the arrangements, controls and procedures are proportionate, appropriate, sound and adequate.
2. Mobile money service providers shall implement a program against money laundering (ML) and terrorist financing (TF), commensurate to the risks and size of the business, which shall include but not be limited to the following internal policies, procedures and controls: compliance management arrangements (including the appointment of a compliance officer); screening procedures to ensure high standards when hiring employees;

…

18. Permissible transaction

1. Permissible mobile money transactions may include but [are] not limited to the following-
   
   1. domestic payments;
   2. domestic money transfers, including transfers to and from a bank account;
   3. bulk transactions, including payments of salaries, benefits and pensions;
   4. cash-in and cash-out transactions;
   5. over-the-counter transactions;
   6. international remittances in partnership with financial institutions authorized by the Central Bank;
   7. savings products in partnership with financial institutions authorized by the Central Bank;
   8. credit products under-written by a licensed financial institution;
   9. insurance products under-written by a licensed insurer; or
   10. any other transaction approved by the Central Bank.
2. A mobile money service provider may perform any of the permissible transactions directly, through its outlets or through duly appointed agents.

19. Prohibited activities

1. The following activities shall be prohibited-
   
   1. providing loans using consumer funds in electronic wallet;
   2. using consumer funds for purposes not related to mobile money service;
   3. entering into exclusive contracts with agents; and
   4. providing services when the mobile money technological system cannot execute
   5. transactions.
   6. Any other activities prohibited by the Central Bank.

…

20. Registration of consumers

1. A consumer shall be duly registered for mobile money service and the registration shall be communicated to the consumer.
2. A mobile money service provider shall take measures to establish and record the true identity of the person seeking to establish a consumer relationship with it or undertake a mobile money transaction, in particular during the following instances:
   
   1. when establishing the business relationship;
   2. when there is a suspicion of ML or TF; and
   3. the financial institution has doubts about the veracity or adequacy of previously obtained customer identification data
3. A mobile money service provider shall comply with the existing AML/CFT Law and regulations when establishing the Know Your Consumer (KYC) details of a consumer at the time of establishing a relationship and during every transaction.

21. Issuance and redemption of mobile money

A mobile money service provider may issue mobile money and shall comply with the following requirements in addition to any other requirement provided for in these Regulations-

1. The mobile money service provider shall open a mobile money account or electronic wallet (e-wallet) for every consumer through which mobile money services shall be transacted;
2. The mobile money may be stored in a mobile or electronic device and may be accessed through any appropriate mobile or electronic device including a mobile phone, Automatic Teller Machine, computer and internet;
3. Mobile money shall be issued only in exchange of funds of the same amount in any approved currency;
4. Mobile money issued shall be exclusive of costs or charges;
5. Mobile money shall be converted into cash at par value;
6. Only transfers or redemption of consumer funds shall be allowed from the bank account held in the commercial bank;
7. A separate account shall be maintained for fees charged; and
8. Mobile money shall never expire.
9. Any other requirements as the Central Bank may direct[.]

22. Transaction processing

1. Mobile money transactions shall meet the following requirements-
   
   1. A mobile money service provider shall promptly and execute fully, any transaction instructions received from a consumer.
   2. Consumer transactions shall be protected through the use of PIN, password or any other reliable and secure means;
   3. The mobile money service provider shall ensure security and integrity of the entire transaction process from the beginning to the end;
   4. An electronic receipt shall be generated for every transaction and the receipt shall contain the following details:
      
      1. Unique transaction reference number;
      2. Date and time;
      3. Amount;
      4. Name of the mobile money service provider providing the service;
      5. Outlet/agent identification (where applicable);
      6. Payer details;
      7. Payee details; and
      8. Purpose of payment (where applicable).
2. A party to a mobile money transaction shall receive immediate confirmation or notification of all successful transactions.
3. A failed transaction shall be backed by an error message notification to the consumer describing the reasons for the failure.
4. The cost of transaction processing, including electronic fund transfer, whether through SMS or any other means shall be separate from the value of the transaction.
5. Where the mobile money service provider imposes fees or charges on any service, such fees or charges may be subject to a limit determined by the Central Bank.

23. Real time transactions

1. All mobile money transactions shall be executed instantly on receipt of instruction from a consumer.
2. Any transaction which cannot be promptly executed fully for any reason shall be reversed.

…

28. Use of outlets

1. A mobile money service provider may open outlets in any place in Somalia for purposes of providing mobile money services.

…

36. Confidentiality

1. A mobile money service provider and its agents shall keep confidential mobile money information of a consumer.
2. Despite the preceding sub-regulation, a mobile money service provider and its agents may disclose consumer information in respect of mobile money services only-
   
   1. to the consumer concerned;
   2. to the Central Bank;
   3. to the Financial Reporting Centre
   4. when authorised, in writing, by the consumer concerned;
   5. as legislated by any written law; or
   6. as ordered by a court of law. (Somalia 2019, bold in original)

7. Ability to Use Cell Phones for Financial Transfers

Sources [published in 2021 and 2022] indicate that mobile money services in Somalia emerged ten years ago (VOA 2021-02-27; Quartz 2022-04-08; The African Exponent 2022-04-21). African Business, a magazine published by IC Publications which publishes "magazines, newsletters, country supplements, industry reports and market intelligence on Africa" (African Business n.d.), reports that "over 70%" of Somalia's population of 13 million uses mobile money services (African Business 2021-09-13). Sources note that approximately two-thirds of all payments in Somalia are made through mobile money payment platforms (The African Exponent 2022-04-21; African Business 2021-09-13; Capacity Magazine 2021-03-01). According to the CIA World Factbook, Somalia maintains "an informal economy largely based" on "remittance/money transfer companies, and telecommunications" (US 2023-01-24).

Quartz states that the "major factors behind the country's innovation in money transfers are a tough operating environment, a weak banking system, lack of policy implementation, and deep distrust of government and the local currency" (2022-04-08). However, according to the UNIDO representative, it is not a matter of trust, but rather that the government has been "overwhelmed" by other factors in the country such as humanitarian crisis, climate change, viruses, poverty, and terrorism; thus, a trust relationship has not been established between people and the authorities in terms of banking system regulation, though this "does not justify poor government performance in financial regulation and taxation" in Somalia (UN 2023-02-07). Similarly, an article by the African Exponent, "a pan-African news platform dedicated to providing news and analysis about contemporary and historical issues in politics, economics, entrepreneurship and culture relevant to Africa" (The African Exponent n.d.), indicates that a "poor operating environment, unreliable banking systems and a lack of policy implementation" are "major factors" which make financial transactions challenging in Somalia (2022-04-21). According to the Research Analyst, "most people prefer mobile money services" because "[t]he banking industry was not familiar [with this technology] when mobile money providers [were] thriving," and "mobile money is easy to use even in rural areas" and does not require an individual to go a location to conduct transactions (2023-02-04).

The Research Analyst stated that Somali telecom companies "started to provide mobile money services" in 2009 because "most of the companies were digitalizing their services" and there was no functional local currency (2023-02-04). The UNIDO representative noted that since a "local currency does not exist," people "tend" to use US currency and mobile money transfer as a safe platform (UN 2023-02-07).

A World Bank blog post states that the Central Bank of Somalia "has put together the 'rails' that make money 'move' safely and quickly to support economic activity" (2022-12-14). The same source notes that the country's banking sector "has reiterated [a] strong commitment to the digital payments agenda, and the implementation efforts have been continuously supported by the World Bank" (World Bank 2022-12-14). African Business states that the Somali Central Bank introduced "a central payments system" in August 2021 which "connects the nation's 13 lenders, and formalises digital payments, making payments easier for people across the country" (2021-09-13).

According to the Quartz article, the money transfer market in Somalia is "one of the most developed" in the world, "characterized by a large diaspora sending billions of dollars home in remittances each year and a local population that prefers mobile money to cash" (2022-04-08). The African Exponent article indicates that the money transfer market in Somalia has helped the locals "send and receive money easily" from their relatives outside the country as well as remote workers to receive their salaries from their foreign employers (2022-04-21). The same source states that the country's financial service "keeps developing" and it has "positively impacted" Somalia's "economic sector in financial technology" (The African Exponent 2022-04-21).

Africa Renewal, a UN "digital magazine that covers Africa's economic, social and political developments," reports that Somalia has "one of the most active mobile money [sectors] in the world" (UN 2022-12-06). According to African Business, Somalia is "on the cusp of becoming the world's first cashless society" (2021-09-13). According to Developing Telecoms, the CEO and Chairman of Hormuud stated in an announcement that "'[w]e are continuing to see a move towards a position where Somalia can claim to be the world's first truly cashless economy"' (2021-04-22). Hormuud Telecom indicates that "only 6% of the population uses cash" (2022-12-05).

According to Developing Telecoms, the CEO of Hormuud noted in their announcement that '"Somalia is a unique example of a country where digital adoption is widespread among all age ranges and demographics"' (2021-04-22).

Developing Telecoms indicates that EVC Plus [Electronic Voucher Card] "is now formally regulated and licensed by the Central Bank" (Developing Telecoms 2021-04-22). Sources also report that it is a "free" mobile money service (VOA 2021-02-27; Quartz 2022-04-08). Sources report that Hormuud Telecom has 3.6 million subscribers of which approximately 3 million use EVC Plus (African Business 2021-09-13; VOA 2021-02-27; The Africa Report 2021-07-09). According to Voice of America (VOA), an American international broadcaster funded by US Congress (VOA n.d.), EVC Plus "recognizes both Somali and U.S. dollars but operates on dollars only because the economy of Somalia is being dollarized due to devaluation" (2021-02-27). According to an article by Quartz, Somalis transfer money between mobile accounts "in dollars as the Somali shilling is very unstable" (2022-04-08).

Quartz, citing an interview with the chair of Hormuud Telecom, notes that the purpose of EVC Plus is not to generate "revenue" for the company; rather, it is "a free service to encourage Somalis to adopt the financial technology" and "to onboard clients to other services such as data and voice" (2022-04-08). The same source adds that "[t]he remittance version of EVC Plus, however, is a charged service" and it is "often used by humanitarian organizations to help deliver aid to Somalia" (Quartz 2022-04-08). The Quartz article states that "[m]ore than $200 million" has been sent to Somalia "in the last few months on the platform" (2022-04-08). According to the Africa Report, a news source published by Jeune Afrique Media Group (The Africa Report 2020-04-01), aid agencies have been able to financially support "the most vulnerable, namely internally displaced people" in Somalia by providing "monthly stipends through mobile money" (2021-07-09). An October 2022 World Food Programme (WFP) Somalia country report notes that the "[t]otal cash distributed to relief beneficiaries" in Somalia amounted to "over USD 52 million, of which half was provided as mobile money" (UN 2022-10).

According to the Quartz article, Somalia has a "dynamic remittances sector with more than 2 million citizens living outside" the country (2022-04-08). Quartz, citing an interview with the CEO of Hormuud, notes that "up to 45% of the hawala [2] agents in Somalia, who mostly process payments from the US and UK, use Hormuud's EVC Plus mobile money to do business" (2022-04-08).

VOA, citing an interview with the governor of the Central Bank of Somalia states that "mobile money service is the preferred choice of Somalis because there is a low bar for accessing it" (2021-02-27). The Quartz article indicates that "[m]ost people keep their money in a digital wallet as opposed to a physical bank" (2022-04-08). A UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) press release, citing an interview with a "54-year-old mother," in Somalia states that "she preferred to receive the cash assistance through her mobile phone saying that it is safer than carrying money" (UN 2021-04-22).

According to the Quartz article, "lack of regulation" for mobile money in Somalia is one of "the main problems in the domestic market" and it has "sparked concerns" that mobile money is being used for "illicit finance and to support al-Shabaab" (2022-04-08). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] Datafication and Digital Rights is a network [of researchers and "academic, civil society and industry partners" (Datafication and Digital Rights n.d.a)] conducting research on public communications, the informal economy, and digital rights in East Africa, including in Somalia (Datafication and Digital Rights n.d.b). The network is hosted by the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) (Datafication and Digital Rights n.d.b). The article's author is a co-founder of Digital Shelter, a Somalia-based organization that is part of the network (Ali 2021-01-19).

[2] According to the Quartz article, hawala is a service that "allows users to send and receive money in different countries through an informal network of brokers, without any funds crossing borders" (2022-04-08).

References

Africa Center for Strategy & Policy. N.d. "Our Mission." [Accessed 2023-02-23]

African Business. 2021-09-13. Ahmed Mohamed Yusuf. "Somalia Points the Way to First Cashless Society." [Accessed 2023-02-07]

African Business. N.d. "Our Group." [Accessed 2023-02-07]

The African Exponent. 2022-04-21. Obinna Umeh. "Mobile Money Platforms Changing the Financial Sector in Somalia". [Accessed 2023-02-07]

The African Exponent. N.d. "About Us - The African Exponent." [Accessed 2023-02-07]

The Africa Report. 2021-07-09. Mohamed Sheikh Nor. "Somalia's Strong Mobile-Money Market Faces New Competition from Visa". [Accessed 2023-02-07]

The Africa Report. 2020-04-01. "About Us." [Accessed 2023-02-07]

Ali, Abdifatah Hassan. 2021-01-19. "Understanding Digital Inclusion and Exclusion in Somalia." Datafication and Digital Rights. [Accessed 2023-02-21]

Cable.co.uk. 2022. "Worldwide Mobile Data Pricing 2022." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Cable.co.uk. N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Capacity Magazine. 2021-03-01. Melanie Mingas. "Hormuud Telecom's Mobile Money First for Somalia." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Datafication and Digital Rights. N.d.a. "About Us." [Accessed 2023-02-21]

Datafication and Digital Rights. N.d.b. Homepage. [Accessed 2023-02-23]

Developing Telecoms. 2021-04-22. James Barton. "Hormuud Telecom Launches Somalia's First Mobile Money App." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Developing Telecoms. N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Hormuud Telecom. 2023-01-03. "Are You Looking for a High-Speed Internet Solution that Can Keep Up with Your Fast-Paced Lifestyle? Look No Further than Our Fiber to the Home and Office (FTTH) Internet!" [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Hormuud Telecom. 2022-12-05. "Hormuud: Leading Somalia's Digital Evolution." [Accessed 2023-02-13]

Quartz. 2022-04-08. Tom Collins. "Somalis Changed the Face of Money Transfers Worldwide." [Accessed 2023-02-07]

Quartz. N.d. About page. [Accessed 2023-02-07]

Research Analyst, Africa Center for Strategy & Policy. 2023-02-04. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

Somalia. [2021]. National Communications Authority (NCA). "Licensed Operators." [Accessed 2023-02-01]

Somalia. 2019. Central Bank of Somalia. Mobile Money Regulations, 2019. [Accessed 2023-02-20]

Somalia. N.d.a. National Communications Authority (NCA). "Background." [Accessed 2023-02-01]

Somalia. N.d.b. National Communications Authority (NCA). "Mission and Vision." [Accessed 2023-02-01]

United Nations (UN). 2023-02-07. UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Interview with a representative in Somalia.

United Nations (UN). 2022-12-06. Douglas Okwatch. "Somalia: Africa's New Investment Frontier." Africa Renewal. [Accessed 2023-02-09]

United Nations (UN). 2022-10. World Food Programme (WFP). WFP Somalia Country Brief: October 2022. [Accessed 2023-02-15]

United Nations (UN). 2021-04-22. UN Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat). "Mobile Money Transfers Support Vulnerable Families in Somalia's Capital During the Pandemic." [Accessed 2023-02-16]

United Nations (UN). 2021-01. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). Humanitarian Needs Overview: Somalia. [Accessed 2023-02-15]

United States (US). 2023-01-24. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). "Somalia." The World Factbook. [Accessed 2023-02-01]

Voice of America (VOA). 2021-02-27. Harun Maruf. "Somalia Issues First License to Mobile Money Service." [Accessed 2023-02-02]

Voice of America (VOA). N.d. "Mission and Values." [Accessed 2023-01-30]

World Bank. 2022-12-14. Asta Bareisaite, Sameer Goyal & Karol Karpinski. "New Bank Payment Systems Get Money Moving in Somalia." World Bank Blogs. [Accessed 2023-02-15]

World Bank. 2021a. "Mobile Cellular Subscriptions – Somalia." [Accessed 2023-02-01]

World Bank. 2021b. "Mobile Cellular Subscriptions (per 100 People) – Somalia." [Accessed 2023-02-01]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Africa Center for Strategy & Policy; Dalkom Somalia; Golis Telecom; Hormuud Telecom; Somalia – National Communications Authority; Somali Economic Forum; Somcast Networks; Somtel Somalia.

Internet sites, including: Australia – Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade; The Fund for Peace; Germany – Federal Office for Migration and Refugees; Institute of Development Studies; Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies; Intergovernmental Authority on Development; International Monetary Fund; ITU Telecommunication Development Sector; London School of Economics and Political Science; ODI; Orchid Project – 28 Too Many; Oxfam America; Rift Valley Institute; Save Somali Women and Children; Somalia – Somalia National Bureau of Statistics; Somali Economic Forum; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute; UK – Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, Home Office; UN – Assistance Mission in Somalia, International Organization for Migration, Refworld, Security Council, UN News.