Responses to Information Requests

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Socio-Economic Situation

Based on 2021 estimates, the population of Bangladesh is approximately 164 or 166 million (US 14 Dec. 2021; UN [2021]). World Bank data indicates that in 2020, 50.6 percent of the population was male (World Bank n.d.a) and 49.4 percent was female (World Bank n.d.b).

Sources indicate that approximately 98 percent of the population is Bengali (US 14 Dec. 2021; Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.1; MRG June 2019). According to a 2011 estimate by the US CIA World Factbook, 1.1 percent of the population is comprised of "other [I]ndigenous ethnic groups"; 27 Indigenous ethnic groups are recognized by Bangladesh's government and that "other sources estimate there are about 75 ethnic groups" (US 14 Dec. 2021). A country information report from Australia's Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) states that the non-Bengali population are "mostly small [I]ndigenous groups," of which Bangladesh has "about 50 distinct ethno-linguistic" groups (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.1, 3.2). Minority Rights Group International (MRG) notes that the government "recognizes 50 ethnic groups but does not recognize the concept of [I]ndigenous peoples" (MRG June 2019). The same source notes that according to the 2011 census, "approximately" 1.8 percent of the population are Indigenous Adivasis, "amounting to around 1.6 million – though some community representatives claim the actual figure is considerably higher"; the "majority" of the Indigenous Adivasis "live in the plains of the north and southeast, as well as the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), where they are also referred to as Jumma" (MRG June 2019). The DFAT report notes that while "around a third" of the Indigenous population live in the CHT, "[I]ndigenous people also live across the country" (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.2).

A 2018 estimate by the World Factbook indicates that 88.4 percent of the population is Muslim and 11.6 percent are defined as "other" (US 14 Dec. 2021). MRG notes that "while the majority of Muslims are Sunni, a small proportion are Shi'a" and there are "approximately" 100,000 Ahmadis (MRG June 2019). The same source estimates that 8.5 percent of the population is Hindu, 0.6 percent is Buddhist, and 0.3 percent is Christian (MRG June 2019).

The World Factbook data from 2021 states that 38.9 percent of the population lives in urban areas (US 14 Dec. 2021).

According to a 2019 figure provided by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), 20.5 percent of the population was "[l]iving below the National Poverty Line" (ADB Apr. 2021, 1). A World Bank report assessing poverty in Bangladesh states that "[s]ince 2000, the country has reduced poverty by half" (World Bank 7 Oct. 2019, v). However, the same source notes that 1 in 4 people in Bangladesh continue to live in poverty and "almost half" of the population living in poverty "live in extreme poverty and are unable to afford a basic food consumption basket" (World Bank 7 Oct. 2019, 11). The same source notes that rural and urban areas did not undergo the same level of poverty reduction and while rural areas have accounted for 90 percent of poverty reduction since 2010, "in urban areas, progress has been slower and extreme poverty has not decreased" (World Bank 7 Oct. 2019, v).

According to an April 2021 World Bank report on the economic situation and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Bangladesh, COVID-19 has "severely affected" Bangladesh with a national shutdown from March to May 2020 resulting "in severe supply-side disruptions in all sectors of the economy" (World Bank Apr. 2021, ii). The same source notes that COVID-19 "has reversed the country's steady trend of poverty reduction over the past two decades, at least temporarily" (World Bank Apr. 2021, ii). However, the World Bank report further states that a series of phone surveys [1] found the labour market has made a "gradual" recovery by February 2021 and the survey results from September/October 2020 found that "[h]ouseholds in poor and slum areas" in Dhaka and Chittagong "self-reported that their food security has improved substantially," and their "ability to pay rent and expectations to be able to obtain cash to fund an emergency" showed "improvements" when compared to results from June/July 2020 (World Bank Apr. 2021, 6).

According to a report on district level data from a 2019 survey on the situation of women and children based on a representative sample of 64,400 households, conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) in collaboration with UNICEF, 10.5 percent of women aged 15 to 49 reported "having personally felt discriminated against or harassed within the previous 12 months" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 15, 61).

For information on the situation and treatment of single women and women who head their own households in Dhaka and Chittagong, including availability of support services and ability to access housing and employment, see Response to Information Request BGD200087 of February 2020.

1.1 Socio-Economic Situation in Dhaka

According to 2021 World Factbook data, the population of Dhaka was 21.741 million (US 14 Dec. 2021).

MRG states that "[a]pproximately" 300,000 Biharis, an ethnic minority group, live "in and around" Dhaka (MRG June 2019).

Data compiled from a 2018 World Bank survey [2] indicates that 13.9 percent of respondents were "born in this community," 26.5 percent "migrated from [elsewhere in] Dhaka," 13.1 percent moved to Dhaka "for family," 13 percent moved to Dhaka for marriage," and 59.5 percent moved to Dhaka for work (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that 87.1 percent of responding Dhaka households were "male headed households" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the 2019 BBS and UNICEF data, 97 percent of Dhaka respondents reported using "improved sanitation facilities," 57.7 percent reported using "basic sanitation services," and 55.9 percent reported having "[b]asic drinking water, sanitation and hygiene service[s]" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 58).

The BBS and UNICEF data indicates that 6.5 percent of women in Dhaka aged 15 to 49 reported "having personally felt discriminated against or harassed within the previous 12 months" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61).

The DFAT report provides the following information regarding the treatment of Indigenous people in Bangladesh and their ability to relocate to urban centres including Dhaka:

Indigenous people who move to large cities such as Dhaka in order to find work may experience discrimination and vilification, such as being subjected to abuse in the street, or having people refuse to share food or drinks with them. Women wearing traditional dress are particularly likely to be targeted. Children in mainstream schools may be targeted for bullying. Many children are unable to access education in their [I]ndigenous languages. Indigenous people report, however, that they do not generally experience discrimination in access to goods and services, at police checkpoints, or in accessing healthcare or housing. (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.3)

1.2 Socio-Economic Situation in Chittagong

According to 2021 World Factbook data, the population of Chittagong was 5.133 million (US 14 Dec. 2021).

Data compiled from a 2019 survey [3] conducted by the World Bank indicates that 48 percent of respondents were "born in this community," 8.2 percent "migrated from [elsewhere in] Chittagong," 11.4 percent moved to Chittagong "for family," 20.4 percent moved to Chittagong for marriage, and 55.9 percent moved to Chittagong for work (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that 84.2 percent of responding Chittagong households were "male headed households" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the BBS and UNICEF data, 88.1 percent of Chittagong respondents reported using "improved sanitation facilities," 69.7 percent reported using "basic sanitation facilities," and 48.9 percent reported having "[b]asic drinking water, sanitation and hygiene service[s]" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 57).

The BBS and UNICEF data indicates that 5 percent of women aged 15 to 49 reported "having personally felt discriminated against or harassed within the previous 12 months" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61, 71).

2. Rates of Criminal and Political Violence

According to 2020 crime statistics provided by the BBS and attributed to the Bangladesh Police, there were 187,926 total reported crime cases, including 3,539 murders and 486 kidnappings (Bangladesh 2020, 146–147).

According to a report by the US Overseas Security Advisory Council (OSAC), "[m]ugging, burglary, financial scams, and petty drug crimes comprise most [of the] criminal activity" in Dhaka and other major cities in Bangladesh (US 27 Oct. 2021, 1). The same source adds that "[h]omicides, sexual assaults, robberies, and residential break-ins" occur but do not surpass average rates in "major U.S. cities" (US 27 Oct. 2021, 1). According to the same source, "most perpetrators" of "[v]iolent crime" have "some level" of familiarity with the victims and "[v]iolent crime tends to be situational" (US 27 Oct. 2021, 1). The same source adds that, owing to "occasional communal violence, terrorism, kidnapping, crime and other security concerns" in the CHT, Bangladesh's government has restrictions in place for "all" foreigners who travel to the region (US 27 Oct. 2021).

Sources report that following a 2016 terrorist attack at the Holey Artisan Bakery, Bangladeshi authorities increased counterterrorism efforts (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F3; Jane's Country Risk Daily Report 7 May 2019; Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.35), and since then terrorist attacks have been "low" (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F3) or "have decreased markedly" (Jane's Country Risk Daily Report 7 May 2019).

According to statistics provided by the South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), a website tracking terrorism and "low intensity warfare" in South Asia of the non-profit Institute for Conflict Management (SATP n.d.), as of 20 December 2021, there were 73 "terrorism related incidents" in Bangladesh in 2021, 88 in 2020, and 99 in 2019 (SATP 20 Dec. 2021a).

According to the OSAC report, "criminal or terrorist individuals or groups have threatened to and/or have seized or detained and threatened to kill, injure, or continue to detain individuals in order to compel a third party (including a governmental organization) to do or abstain from doing something as a condition of release" (US 27 Oct. 2021, 2). According to the same source, "[t]errorist elements retain a presence" in the country, and in 2019 the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) [Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham, Islamic State (IS), Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), Daesh] claimed responsibility for six attacks involving improvised explosive devices (IEDs), which "targeted" the Bangladesh Police and a [Bangladesh] Awami League (AL) office (US 27 Oct. 2021, 2–3).

2.1 Dhaka

According to the 2020 statistics produced by BBS, and attributed to the Bangladesh Police, in 2020 Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP) recorded 22,673 total crime cases, including 219 murders and 44 kidnappings (Bangladesh 2020, 146–147).

The BBS and UNICEF data indicates that 90.8 percent of Dhaka women aged 15 to 49 reported that they "feel safe walking alone in their neighbourhood after dark" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 54). According to an April 2020 article in the Dhaka Tribune, an English-language Bangladesh-based newspaper, data provided by the DMP indicated that cases of "violence against women" in Dhaka was "higher" in March 2020 compared to February and January 2020 with 56 cases of rape and 132 cases of "other forms of violence against women" reported (Dhaka Tribune 24 Apr. 2020). The same source states that according to a human rights activist, the national COVID-19 lockdown introduced in March 2020 "led to a rise in domestic tension and violence" (Dhaka Tribune 24 Apr. 2020). A September 2020 article by the same source cites DMP statistics as indicating that 184 "rape cases have been recorded" over the preceding five months in Dhaka, with 12 cases reported in April, 15 in May, 46 in June, 53 in July, and 58 in August (Dhaka Tribune 29 Sept. 2020). The same source reports that according to statistics compiled from media reports by Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK), a Bangladeshi legal aid and human rights organization (ASK n.d.), there were 632 "rape incidents" from April to August 2020 (Dhaka Tribune 29 Sept. 2020).

According to statistics provided by the SATP, as of 20 December 2021, there were 39 "terrorism related incidents" in Dhaka in 2021, 36 in 2020, and 39 in 2019 (SATP 20 Dec. 2021b).

Freedom House reports that "the [ISIS] militant group claimed credit for several nonlethal bomb attacks on police officers in Dhaka in 2019 and 2020" (Freedom House 3 Mar. 2021, Sec. F3).

Sources report that in February 2019 Bangladeshi commandoes shot dead a man attempting to use either a gun (Dhaka Tribune 24 Feb. 2019) or a toy gun (CNN 25 Feb. 2019) to hijack a Biman Bangladesh Airlines flight from Dhaka to Dubai (Dhaka Tribune 24 Feb. 2019; CNN 25 Feb. 2019). According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Terrorism 2019, "[t]he international community remains concerned about security procedures at Dhaka's Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport" noting the February 2019 incident and "several subsequent incidents in which passengers defeated screening protocols" there (US 24 June 2020, 154).

Sources report that on 29 April 2019, three police officers were wounded by an explosion in Dhaka's Gulistan road (Bangla Tribune 25 July 2019a; Jane's Country Risk Daily Report 7 May 2019). According to Jane's Country Risk Daily Report, a day earlier (on 28 April 2019), "security forces raided a shanty town shack in Dhaka's Bosila area" suspected of harboring Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen [Jama'atul Mujahideen] Bangladesh (JMB) militants, "a domestic Islamist group that the government has connected with previous Islamic State attacks," resulting in "a brief siege, two militants detonat[ing] explosives, killing themselves" (Jane's Country Risk Daily Report 7 May 2019).

Sources cite the Search for International Terrorist Entities (SITE) Intelligence Group [4] as indicating that on 26 May 2019, a police vehicle was attacked by an explosion which injured three people, including one police officer and for which the ISIS claimed responsibility (Bangla Tribune 27 May 2019; Dhaka Tribune 27 May 2019; PTI 27 May 2019).

According to a July 2019 Dhaka Tribune article, police found and deactivated two "'bomb-like objects'" at Paltan intersection and Khamarbari [road] in Dhaka (Dhaka Tribune 24 July 2019). The Bangla Tribune, a Bengali language news website in Bangladesh, reports that the two IEDs in Paltana and Khamarbari were found "near police boxes" and that "[i]n the last few years, a tendency has risen among militants to attack members of the police force" (Bangla Tribune 25 July 2019a). A separate July 2019 Bangla Tribune article, citing reports by SITE Intelligence Group, indicates that ISIS "claimed responsibility" for "planting" the two bombs (Bangla Tribune 25 July 2019b). Bangla Tribune notes that according to officials with the DMP's Counterterrorism and Transnational Crime (CTTC) unit, the Neo-Jamaat ul-Mujahideen [Neo-Jama'atul Mujahideen] Bangladesh (Neo-JMB) [a JMB splinter group (International Crisis Group 28 Feb. 2018, 4)] and Ansar al-Islam [a "terrorist" group (US 27 Oct. 2021)] have been carrying out "operation[s]" "for the last few years," and it is "believed that a group of Neo JMB is still active under Abu Mohamamd Al Bangali," and Syed Ziaul Huq, "a leading figure of Ansar Al Islam" remains "a fugitive" (Bangla Tribune 25 July 2019a).

2.2 Chittagong

According to the 2020 statistics produced by the BBS, and attributed to the Bangladesh Police, in 2020 Chattogram Metropolitan Police (CMP) recorded 6,288 total crime cases, including 77 murders and 13 kidnappings (Bangladesh 2020, 146–147).

According to the BBS and UNICEF data, 75.5 percent of Chittagong women aged 15 to 49 reported that they "feel safe walking alone in their neighbourhood after dark" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 53).

According to a May 2019 Dhaka Tribune article, crimes "committed by gangs of teenagers" are "rising" in Chittagong (Dhaka Tribune 18 May 2019). A September 2020 Dhaka Tribune article notes Chittagong's "rising" "number of juvenile delinquents," which is "usually defined as" "minors … between the ages of 10 and 18, who have committed some acts that violate the law" (Dhaka Tribune 12 Sept. 2020).

According to statistics provided by the SATP, as of 20 December 2021, there were two "terrorism related incidents" in Chittagong in 2021, four in 2020, and five in 2019 (SATP 20 Dec. 2021c).

A Dhaka Tribune article states that on 28 February 2020 two police officers and a child were "injured in an explosion near a traffic police box" in the Sholoshahar Gate No. 2 section of Chittagong (Dhaka Tribune 28 Feb. 2020). An October 2020 article by the same source reports that the "bomb blast" injured 5 people including two police officers, occurred "inside" a traffic police box, and was followed by the arrest of nine suspects since May 2020 (Dhaka Tribune 14 Oct. 2020). The same article adds that all 9 "arrested" individuals were "suspected operatives" of the New JMB, "an offshoot of [the] banned militant outfit [JMB]," and the arrests were made by the CTTC unit of the CMP (Dhaka Tribune 14 Oct. 2020).

According to a 12 June 2021 Dhaka Tribune article, the CTTC unit of the CMP "arrested an active member of [the] banned militant outfit Ansar Al Islam" (Dhaka Tribune 12 June 2021). The same article notes that the individual "recently came back from Syria," where "he had joined [ISIS]," had "received training on operating heavy weapons," and, according to the CMP, had taken "part in battles for ISIS" (Dhaka Tribune 12 June 2021). According to the same article, "[a]fter completing his mission in Syria," the man "returned" to Bangladesh on 22 March 2021 "to continue 'jihadi' activities, according to [the] CTTC" (Dhaka Tribune 12 June 2021).

3. Access to Housing
3.1 Dhaka

According to the 2018 World Bank survey data, 10.9 percent of responding Dhaka dwellings were "owned," 2.8 percent were "rent free," and 86.2 percent were "rented" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The data also indicates that the "[m]ean cost of rent (including electricity, water [and] gas)" was 3,346 Bangladeshi Taka (BDT) [$C50], and that 98 percent of renters were "under an oral contract" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that 95.4 percent of Dhaka households get "water from an improved source" and 99.7 percent had "electricity" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The data also states that 89.4 percent of households were "sharing [a] kitchen" and 77.2 percent had "a separate kitchen," while 87.4 percent of households had "access to improved toilets" and 90.3 percent "share[d a] toilet with other households" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). According to the data, 71.6 percent of Dhaka households had tin roofs and 26 percent had "[b]rick/cement" roofs (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to an April 2019 article on the website of the University of Toronto's Asian Studies journal, Synergy, by Renee Xu, a contributor for the journal's East Asia Section, urbanization in Dhaka has "largely been sustained by large-scale migration that has produced explosive rates of population growth" (Xu 15 Apr. 2019). The same source notes that a "massive inflow" of "many" "low- and middle-class workers" in Dhaka has contributed to a situation in which "the urban poor" have an "inability to obtain sufficient and affordable housing" in the city (Xu 15 Apr. 2019). Xu adds that Dhaka's "infrastructure has been struggling to keep pace with this continual influx of people," creating a "multitude of challenges" including the "provision of housing" for "disadvantaged" residents (Xu 15 Apr. 2019). The same article indicates that housing "contractors in the formal sector tend to exclusively serve upper and middle-income populations," leaving "many" Dhaka residents unable to access affordable housing (Xu 15 Apr. 2019). The article indicates that "while many Dhaka residents have been able to find adequate living situations for themselves," "more often than not, many find themselves residing in unsafe, uninhabitable settlements over which they have no legal title and constantly face the threat of ecological disaster, legal action or both" (Xu 15 Apr. 2019).

3.2 Chittagong

According to the 2019 World Bank survey data, 35.4 percent of responding Chittagong dwellings were "owned," 2.3 percent were "rent free," and 62.3 percent were "rented" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The data also indicates that the "[m]ean cost of rent (including electricity, water [and] gas)" was 2,847 BDT [$C43], and that 91 percent of renters were "under an oral contract" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that 97.1 percent of Chittagong households get "water from an improved source" and 98.9 percent had "electricity" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). According to the data, 40 percent of households were "sharing [a] kitchen" and 76.6 percent had "a separate kitchen," while 84.1 percent of households had "access to improved toilets" and 45.2 percent "share[d a] toilet with other households" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The data indicates that 73 percent of Chittagong households had tin roofs and 27 percent had "brick/cement" roofs (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

3.3 Tenant Registration System

For information on the tenant registration (or tenant verification) system, including implementation and information sharing by authorities, see Response to Information Request BGD200088 of February 2020.

3.3.1 Citizen Information Management System (CIMS)

According to a January 2019 article in the Dhaka Tribune, the DMP "initiated collecting information on landlords and tenants in late 2015 … to help police track down suspected criminals who may be hiding in the city" (Dhaka Tribune 30 Jan. 2019). The same article indicates that the DMP use a form which "asks landlords to provide details of tenant or the flat/house owner's name, photo, permanent address, workplace address, religion, mobile phone number, national ID number, email address, passport number, and the names, ages, occupations and mobile phone numbers of the family members" (Dhaka Tribune 30 Jan. 2019). The same article states that the DMP now "has key information on eight million residents" of the city, "[a]ll" of which according to the DMP Commissioner is "stored in the DMP's [CIMS] database" (Dhaka Tribune 30 Jan. 2019).

According to the description available on the official Google Play webpage for the CIMS DMP mobile application, the app "helps citizen to submit information digitally" that would otherwise be submitted using "hard copy forms" (Dhaka n.d.). The same source adds that the user "can update family member information and [h]ome employee information" (Dhaka n.d.). Sources report that from 15 to 21 June 2019, the DMP initiated "Citizen Information Collection Week (CICW) (Dhaka Tribune 24 June 2019; BSS 15 June 2019). The Dhaka Tribune stated that the DMP used the drive to "[gather] landlord-tenant information" to "update information in its [CIMS]" (Dhaka Tribune 24 June 2019).

Sources report that in 2019 the DMP launched a mobile application for CIMS data collection (Dhaka Tribune 9 Sept. 2019; Asjad 12 Feb. 2021). According to a September 2019 article in the Dhaka Tribune, "[p]olice will directly use the CIMS app to avail information about tenants"; the DMP Commissioner stated that DMP has "'collected the information of over 7.2 million citizens in CIMS'" and "'[i]ndividuals can no longer rent out or rent a house without a lease information form'" (Dhaka Tribune 9 Sept. 2019). A February 2021 opinion article published by the Financial Express, a daily English-language newspaper in Bangladesh, and written by columnist Tanim Asjad, reports that the DMP has "again" started "collecting the information of house owners and tenants living in Dhaka" for storage in its CIMS (Asjad 12 Feb. 2021). To date, the same source states, "around" 8 million people have been "recorded in the system," and the "ongoing campaign" is designed to "update the database by including those who somehow were earlier excluded" (Asjad 12 Feb. 2021). The same article reports that the CIMS information collection "is still manual as the [mobile] app is not properly functional," and "citizens are forced to visit police stations to present the form or paper physically" (Asjad 12 Feb. 2021).

Information on CIMS data collection in Chittagong was scarce among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to an October 2017 article by the Daily Star, an English-language newspaper in Bangladesh, in July 2016 CMP "took the initiative" to "complete the citizens' information database," including by "entering [citizen] information into the [CIMS] online database" (The Daily Star 29 Oct. 2017). The same article reports that CMP "have been provided with 30 computers, scanners, and dedicated internet connections" to complete the entry of the information (The Daily Star 29 Oct. 2017).

4. Access to Employment and Income

The World Bank, citing data from the International Labour Organization (ILO), reports that Bangladesh's overall unemployment rate for 2020 was 5.3 percent (World Bank 15 June 2021). The ADB indicates that in 2019 the unemployment rate for women was 6.6 percent while the rate for men was 3.2 percent (ADB Apr. 2021, 3). The BBS reports that in 2016–2017, Bangladesh's unemployment rate was 4.2 percent, with the total unemployed population at 2.7 million people and the total employed population (age 15 and above) at 60.8 million people (Bangladesh 2020, 39–40). The same source indicates that the rural unemployment rate was 4 percent, and the urban unemployment rate was 4.9 percent in 2016-2017 (Bangladesh 2020, 40). The BBS also states that the unemployment rate in 2016–2017 was 3.1 percent for men and 6.7 percent for women (Bangladesh 2020, 40). The DFAT report notes that the "overall participation rate of women in employment remains low and has not increased appreciably in the previous decade" (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.11).

According to the DFAT report, "[m]ajor cities, such as Dhaka and Chittagong, offer greater opportunities for employment" than other parts of the country (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 5.22). The same source also provides the following information regarding employment in Bangladesh:

The majority of labour force participants are engaged in informal and low-income work across various sectors, especially in the agriculture sector. While estimates of the size of the informal sector vary, it is likely to comprise between 80 and 90 per cent of the labour force. (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.10)

According to the DFAT report, "[r]egardless of their arrival date in Bangladesh, Rohingya are not eligible for Bangladesh citizenship (including through marriage) and are not legally entitled to work" (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.22). The same source notes that "[m]any Rohingya who arrived before 25 August 2017 have been able to work informally in Bangladesh using fraudulent identity documents, including National Identity Cards (NICs)" (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.22). The same source provides the following information regarding Rohingya people relocating to cities including Dhaka in search of employment:

Their ability to relocate and find employment depends on individual networks. Rohingya may be motivated to assimilate into communities quickly in order to participate in informal employment undetected by authorities. Rohingya may also use fraudulently obtained documents in order to obtain work in the formal sector. (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 3.21)

According to a 2020 analysis published by the World Bank on the impact of COVID-19 on the labour market in "poor areas" of Dhaka, Chittagong, and Cox's Bazar, based on "representative phone surveys in poor and slum areas" of these cities, 76 percent of Dhaka respondents and 59 percent of Chittagong respondents "seem to have experienced a job loss … as they report exiting the job force or currently searching for jobs" since 25 March 2020 (Genoni, et al. 2020, 3, 9–10). The same study found that "given the low rates of female labor force participation, women appear to be disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 crisis," having "experienced relatively higher job losses" which "have translated into women leaving the labor force" in Dhaka and Chittagong specifically (Genoni, et al. 2020, 3).

According to the April 2021 World Bank report, "[r]ecent survey data from poor areas in Dhaka and Chittagong suggest" a "gradual recovery of livelihoods in those areas," after the COVID-19 pandemic initially saw "[w]idepread losses in employment and labor earnings" and a "significant increase in poverty" in the country (World Bank Apr. 2021, ii). The same report states that surveys "pointed to a gradual labor market recovery in major urbans centers by February 2021," including the percentage of adults who were "working the week preceding the interview" reaching 62 percent in Chittagong (which is "on par with pre-COVID levels") and 69 percent in Dhaka (which is "still below" the pre-COVID level of 74 percent) (World Bank Apr. 2021, 6).

Article 15 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, adopted in 1972 and amended in 2018, provides the following:

…

(d) the right to social security, that is to say, to public assistance in cases of undeserved want arising from unemployment, illness or disablement, or suffered by widows or orphans or in old age, or in other such cases. (Bangladesh 1972)

4.1 Dhaka

The Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI), citing BBS statistics and discussing the economic impact of COVID-19, indicates that the city's unemployment rate rose to 23 percent in July of 2020, before dropping to 4 percent in September "with [the] reopening [of] the economy" (DCCI 2020, 23).

According to the 2018 World Bank survey data, 20.3 percent of Dhaka respondents were "employed in services," 20 percent were "employed in a business," 9.9 percent were "employed as porter/day laborers," 12.1 percent were "employed as maid[s]/servant[s]," 10.9 percent were "employed as rickshaw/van drivers," and 11.3 percent were "employed in other sector[s]/activit[ies]" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data reports that 76.9 percent of individuals were "in the labor force," 74.9 percent were "wage-employed individuals," and 18.5 percent were "self-employed" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). Regarding terms of employment, the same data set reports that 10 percent of Dhaka respondents were "casual/daily workers," 35.8 percent were "permanent employees," 19.8 percent were "self-employed", 29.9 percent were "temporary employees," and 4.5 percent had an "other" term of employment (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

The 2018 World Bank data reported that the "[m]ean monthly wages" of Dhaka respondents was 9,142 BDT [C$133] and their "[m]ean total monthly income" was 10,425 BDT [C$157] (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that responding households had an average of 53 percent "incoming-earning members" in their home (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). According to the same data, 5 percent of responding households "received local remittances" and 2 percent "received international remittances" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to data produced by the Price and Wage division of the National Accounting Wing of the BBS, the average daily wage rate for Dhaka's "skilled" "industrial workers" in October 2020 was 465 BDT [C$6.96], and 387 BDT [C$5.80] for its "unskilled" "industrial workers" (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, 5). According to data produced by the Agriculture Wing of the BBS, in June 2020 the "daily average wage rate [for] agricultural labour" "without food" in Dhaka was 525 BDT [C$7.87] for men and 465 BDT [C$6.96] for women, or 456 BDT [C$6.84] for men and 438 BDT [C$6.57] for women if three meals are provided (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, 9).

The 2018 World Bank data reports that 10.6 percent of respondent households had "at least one member [who] asked for microfinance in the last twelve months," and 1.4 percent of households had "received money from [the] social-safety net" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

The 2019 BBS and UNICEF data indicates that 56.5 percent of the population was "covered by social transfers" [5], and 70.9 percent of households with children received some type of social transfer (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61).

According to the DFAT report, "Indigenous people and people living in remote areas are very likely to work in the informal sector," and they "often move to large cities, especially Dhaka, in search of employment" (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.10).

4.2 Chittagong

According to the 2019 World Bank survey data, 24.8 percent of Chittagong respondents were "employed in services," 14.3 percent were "employed in a business," 10.3 percent were "employed as porter/day laborers," 5.2 percent were "employed as maid[s]/servant[s]," 5.9 percent were "employed as rickshaw/van drivers," and 17.9 percent were "employed in other sector[s]/activit[ies]" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates that 64.5 percent of individuals were "in the labor force," 72.8 percent were "wage-employed individuals," and 11.7 were "self-employed" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

The 2019 World Bank data indicated that the "[m]ean monthly wages" of Chittagong respondents was 14,470 BDT [C$218] and their "[m]ean total monthly income" was 14,102 BDT [C$212] (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data states that responding households had an average of 39 percent "incoming-earning members" in their home (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). According to the same data, 5 percent of responding households "received local remittances" and 4 percent "received international remittances" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the BBS's Price and Wage data, the average daily wage rate for Chittagong's "skilled" "industrial workers" in October 2020 was 449 BDT [C$6.57], and 374 BDT [C$5.61] for "unskilled" "industrial workers" (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, 5). According to data produced by the Agriculture Wing of the BBS, in June 2020 the "daily average wage rate for agricultural labour" "without food" in Chittagong was 560 BDT [C$8.40] for men and 380 BDT [C$5.70] for women, or 440 BDT [C$6.59] for men and 300 BDT [C$4.50] for women if three meals are provided (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, 9).

Regarding terms of employment, the same data set reports that 13 percent of Chittagong respondents were "casual/daily workers," 31 percent were "permanent employees," 13.6 percent were "self-employed," 35.7 percent were "temporary employees," and 4.6 percent had an "other" term of employment (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

The 2019 BBS and UNICEF data indicates that 58.1 percent of the population was "covered by social transfers," and 67.5 percent of households with children received some type of social transfer (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61).

The 2019 World Bank data reports that 25.3 percent of respondent households had "at least one member [who] asked for microfinance in the last twelve months," and 1.5 percent of households had "received money from [the] social-safety net" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

5. Access to Education

BBS statistics for 2020 indicate that the country's literacy rate was 75.2 percent for all people aged 7 and older, including 77.4 percent for men and 72.9 percent for women (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, x). According to the same BBS data, the "adult literacy rate" for all people aged 15 and older was 75.6 percent, including 78.2 percent for men and 73 percent for women (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, x). BBS, citing data from the Bangladesh Bureau of Education Information and Statistics (BANBEIS), also notes that in 2020 national enrollment in "secondary" and "primary" school totalled 10,252,126, including 459,537 in "junior secondary school," 8,557,236 in "secondary school," 1,132,918 in "school and college (school section)," and 102,435 in government "primary school" (Bangladesh Nov. 2021, x). According to the 2019 BBS and UNICEF data, the national completion rate of "primary school" was 82.6 percent, with 64.7 percent for "lower secondary" and 29.4 percent for "upper secondary" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 43). The same data indicates that 48.8 percent of Bangladeshi children aged 7 to 14 had "foundational reading skills," and 27.9 percent had "foundational number skills" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 49). The data also indicates that 64.2 percent of "children and young people" aged 5 to 24 received "[s]chool-related support" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61). Another report by BBS and UNICEF on the 2019 survey indicates that "school-related support" is defined as "[s]chool tuition or other school related support" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 384–385).

According to a 2020 report on education using the 2019 MICS survey data by UNICEF Bangladesh in collaboration with BBS, "[o]ut-of-school rates in the divisions of Dhaka and Chattogram" "meet or exceed the national average at each level of education" (UN 2020, 27).

5.1 Dhaka

According to the 2018 World Bank survey data, 17.9 percent of Dhaka "household heads" cannot "read or write," 35.7 percent of respondents had "no schooling," 33.6 percent were members of "households where at least one member attended private school in the last twelve months," and 19.9 percent were members of "households were at least one member attended public school in the last twelve months" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates an average of 3.55 "[y]ears of complete education" for "individuals 4+ years old" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the 2019 BBS and UNICEF data, the "[p]rimary school completion rate" in Dhaka was 84.5 percent, its "[l]ower secondary completion rate" was 61.4 percent, and its "[u]pper secondary completion rate" was 30.2 percent (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 44). The same data indicates that 60.6 percent of children in Dhaka aged 7 to 14 had "foundational reading skills," and 38.2 percent had "foundational number skills" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 50). The data also indicates that 74 percent of "children and young people" aged 5 to 24 received "[s]chool-related support" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61).

5.2 Chittagong

According to the 2019 World Bank survey data, 18.7 percent of Chittagong "household heads" cannot "read or write," 31 percent of respondents had "no schooling," 37.9 percent were members of "households where at least one member attended private school in the last twelve months," and 33.9 percent were members of "households where at least one member attended public school in the last twelve months" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021). The same data indicates an average of 4.96 "[y]ears of complete education" for "individuals 4+ years old" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the 2019 BBS and UNICEF data, the "[p]rimary school completion rate" in Chittagong was 86 percent, its "[l]ower secondary completion rate" was 67.5 percent, and its "[u]pper secondary completion rate" was 23.4 percent (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 43). The same data indicates that 43.9 percent of children in Chittagong aged 7 to 14 had "foundational reading skills," and 21.5 percent had "foundational number skills" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 49). The data also indicates that 62.2 percent of "children and young people" aged 5 to 24 received "[s]chool-related support" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 61).

6. Access to Health Care

The 2019 DFAT report provides the following information regarding health care in Bangladesh:

The Constitution stipulates that the provision of health care is a government responsibility. In practice, however, the private sector and [NGOs] provide a significant portion of health services. Health care facilities in Bangladesh are generally poor in quality. While there are some private clinics that offer better quality, these tend to be beyond the means of ordinary Bangladeshis. Local clinics exist at the community or village levels, and support larger district or central hospitals. Although some government health services are supposed to be free, patients report that they are generally required to pay money to access services. Consultation fees are often exorbitant and out of reach of the poor. Doctors also reportedly tend to "over-service" clients, ordering unnecessary tests to increase their incomes. (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.15)

6.1 Dhaka

According to the 2018 World Bank survey data, 57.8 percent of Dhaka households had "at least one member [who] used [a] private health facility in the last twelve months" and 24.8 percent had "at least one member [who] used [a] public health facility in the last twelve months" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to data made available by the BBS and attributed to the Directorate General of the Health Services (DGHS) of Bangladesh's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, in 2018 there were 150 "[c]ommunity [c]linics" in Dhaka (Bangladesh 2020, 133).

Data available on the website of the DGHS indicates that the national bed occupancy rate for upazila [sub-district (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, 6)] health complex/offices in 2020 was 68.6 percent (Bangladesh [2020]). The same 2020 data gives the following bed occupancy rates for Dhaka's five reporting upazila health complexes:

• Dhamrai Upazila Health Complex: 64.61 percent
• Dohar Upazila Health Complex: 74.95 percent
• Keraniganj Upazila Health Complex: 81.60 percent
• Nawabganj Upazila Health Complex: 88.49 percent
• Savar Upazila Health Complex: 100.03 percent (Bangladesh [2020]).

The same 2020 data gives the bed occupancy rates for medical college hospitals nationally as 128.5 percent, and the following rates for Dhaka's four reporting medical college hospitals:

• Dhaka Medical College Hospital: 82.38 percent
• Sir Salimullah Medical College Hospital: 100.85 percent
• Mugda Medical College Hospital, Dhaka: 107.78 percent
• Shaheed Suhrawardy Medical College Hospital: 128.62 percent (Bangladesh [2020]).

According to the same 2020 data, the national average for Dhaka's specialty postgraduate institutes and hospitals' bed occupancy rate is 80.3, with ten specialty postgraduate institutes and hospitals reporting the following rates:

• Institute of Child and Mother Health, Matuail: 55.19 percent
• National Institute of ENT: 61.47 percent
• National Institute of Diseases of the Chest & Hospital (NIDCH): 66.87 percent
• National Institute of Ophthalmology (NIO): 67.13 percent
• National Institute of Traumatology and Orthopaedic Rehabilitation (NITOR): 74.74 percent
• National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH): 82.37 percent
• National Institute of Cancer Research and Hospital (NICR&H): 91.32 percent
• National Institute of Kidney Disease and Urology (NIKDU) and National Institute of Neuro Sciences & Hospital (NINS & H): 100 percent
• National Institute of Cardiovascular Disease (NICVD): 124.15 percent (Bangladesh [2020]).

According to a June 2019 Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) blogpost written by Sylvana Q. Sinha, the founder and CEO of Praava Health, a Bangladesh health care company "that combines telemedicine with physical clinics" (TechCrunch 7 Mar. 2021), the private health care system in Dhaka and other "growing urban areas" is "particularly" "expensive and highly fragmented," while Bangladesh's public health system is "understaffed and overstretched," leaving private facilities to "fill the gap" (Sinha 17 June 2019).

The DFAT report states that "[d]espite considerable need," support services treating mental health disorders are "few" and there is "no specific mental health authority," and private mental health facilities are "primarily located in Dhaka" (in addition to one "large mental hospital in Pabna") (Australia 22 Aug. 2019, para. 2.16).

According to a 2020 Human Rights Watch (HRW) report on violence against women and girls in Bangladesh, including victims of acid attacks, based on 50 interviews including 29 interviews with women from six of Bangladesh's eight divisions who are survivors of gender-based violence, as well as interviews with women's rights activists, lawyers, and academics, "[e]xisting government facilities for burn treatment are overburdened and primarily centered in Dhaka" (HRW Oct. 2020, 2, 7). The same report notes that "oral morphine is only available in Dhaka" (HRW Oct. 2020, 7). The report also describes the situation of a woman who moved to Dhaka in 2016 to "protect herself and her children" from her abusive husband, who ultimately "found her, threw acid in her face, and stabbed her in the head with a knife" (HRW Oct. 2020, 25).

According to the HRW report, as part of the "Multi-Sectoral Programme on Violence Against Women (MSPVAW)" "jointly operated by the governments of Bangladesh and Denmark," there are "One-Stop Crisis Centers in major hospitals," including in both Dhaka and Chittagong (HRW Oct. 2020, 25). However, according to the director of a women's right organization quoted in the HRW report, these crisis centres are "'not following up on protocol'," and the space where the crisis centre was "originally set up" in Dhaka Medical College Hospital (DMCH) was ultimately repurposed when "'they gave that space to a blood bank'" (HRW Oct. 2020, 33–34).

6.2 Chittagong

According to the 2019 World Bank survey data, 73.5 percent of Chittagong households had "at least one member [who] used [a] private health facility in the last twelve months" and 12.7 percent had "at least one member [who] used [a] public health facility in the last twelve months" (World Bank 15 Sept. 2021).

According to the DGHS data made available by the BBS, in 2018 there were 507 "[c]ommunity [c]linics" in Chittagong (Bangladesh 2020, 133).

Data available on the website of the DGHS indicates that the national bed occupancy rate for upazila health complex/offices in 2020 was 68.6 percent (Bangladesh [2020]). The same 2020 data gives the following bed occupancy rates for Chittagong's 14 reporting upazila health complexes:

• Sitakunda Upazila Health Complex: 42.41 percent
• Raozan Upazila Health Complex: 43.07 percent
• Hathazari Upazila Health Complex: 48 percent
• Satkania Upazila Health Complex: 49.95 percent
• Mirsharai Upazila Health Complex: 50.46 percent
• Lohagara Upazila Health Complex: 50.54 percent
• Rangunia Upazila Health Complex: 60.37 percent
• Sandwip Upazila Health Complex: 67.94 percent
• Chandanaish Upazila Health Complex: 74.92 percent
• Boalkhali Upazila Health Complex: 77 percent
• Anwara Upazila Health Complex: 78.95 percent
• Banshkhali Upazila Health Complex: 83.19 percent
• Patiya Upazila Health Complex: 98.22 percent
• Fatikchari Upazila Health Complex: 119.75 percent (Bangladesh [2020]).

The same 2020 data indicates that Chittagong's one reporting district hospital (Chittagong 250 Bed General Hospital) had a bed occupancy rate of 60.9 percent, compared with 119.9 percent at district hospitals nationally (Bangladesh [2020]). According to the same 2020 data, Chittagong's one reporting medical college hospital (Chittagong Medical College Hospital) had a bed occupancy rate of 159.28 percent, compared with 128.5 percent at medical college hospitals nationally (Bangladesh [2020]).

7. Freedom of Movement and Internal Relocation

Bangladesh's Constitution provides the following regarding freedom of movement:

36. Subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the public interest, every citizen shall have the right to move freely throughout Bangladesh, to reside and settle in any place therein and to leave and re-enter Bangladesh. (Bangladesh 1972)

According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2020, the country's law provides for "freedom of internal movement" and the government "generally respected these rights" with the exception of the CHT and the Rohingya camps in Cox's Bazar (US 30 Mar. 2021, 18).

According to an article in the Asia-Pacific Journal of Regional Science by Md. Zia Uddin and Takeshi Mizunoya, both of the School of Life and Environmental Sciences at the University of Tsukuba in Japan, the Dhaka-Chittagong National Highway (NH1 [N1]) is a "major road corridor" and "one of the most important economic corridors in terms of passenger and freight movement" (Uddin and Mizunoya 2020, 286). A June 2020 report by the ADB indicates that the N1 is the "only major road that connects Dhaka to Chattogram," and is a 250 km highway "long … hampered by a lack of capacity" (ADB June 2020, 1). The same source adds that the "journey between Chattogram and Dhaka can take up to 10 hours because of road congestion" (ADB June 2020, 1). According to sources, a once-planned "expressway" road designed to improve traffic between Dhaka and Chittagong has now been "abandoned" (The Financial Express 25 Oct. 2021; The Daily Star 18 Oct. 2021).

Sources report that a "high-speed" railway linking Dhaka and Chittagong has been proposed and "approved" by Bangladesh's Prime Minister (The Financial Express 25 Oct. 2021; The Daily Star 1 Jan. 2020). According to sources, the proposed "high-speed" trains would result in Dhaka-Chittagong travel times of 55 to 73 minutes (The Daily Star 1 Jan. 2020) or 1 hour (The Financial Express 25 Oct. 2021), compared with current train travel durations of "around" 6 hours (The Daily Star 1 Jan. 2020) or 6 to 7 hours (The Financial Express 25 Oct. 2021). Information on the implementation of this proposed railway could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Notes

[1] The World Bank conducted three rounds of phone surveys from June 2020 to February 2021 using a "representative sample of households living in poor and slum areas of Dhaka and Chittagong" (World Bank Apr. 2021, 6).

[2] According to the World Bank, the "2018 Dhaka Low Income Area Gender, Inclusion, and Poverty (DIGNITY) survey" "was designed to shed light on poverty, economic empowerment, and livelihood in urban areas of Bangladesh" (World Bank 9 Mar. 2020, 2). The same source notes that the DIGNITY survey collected information from "1,300 urban households living in poor areas of Dhaka" (World Bank 9 Mar. 2020, 2).

[3] According to the World Bank, the 2019 "Chattogram for Low Income Area Gender, Inclusion, and Poverty (CITY)" survey "was designed to shed light on poverty, economic empowerment, and livelihood in urban areas of Bangladesh" and to collect information on residents of "slum and non-slum poor neighborhoods in Chattogram" (World Bank 21 May 2020, 2). The same source states that information was collected from "805 households (1289 individuals - 580 in slum and 709 in non-slum areas)" in Chittagong (World Bank 21 May 2020).

[4] The Search for International Terrorist Entities (SITE) Intelligence Group is a US-based "non-governmental counterterrorism organization specializing in tracking and analyzing online activity of the global violent extremist community" (SITE Intelligence Group n.d.).

[5] According to the 2019 BBS and UNICEF report, "social transfers" include "[m]aternity allowance, [e]mployment generation, [f]ood support, [r]etirement pension for [g]overnment employees and families, [a]llowances (old age /disabled/widow/freedom fighters/shaheed families), school tuition or school related … support for any household member age 5–24 years, and any other external assistance program" (Bangladesh and UN May 2021, 63).

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