Responses to Information Requests

Research Directorate, Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada

1. Overview

Sources note that domestic violence in Guyana is "widespread" (US 30 Mar. 2021, 9; Freedom House 4 Mar. 2020, Sec. G3). According to the 2018 Guyana Women's Health and Life Experiences survey conducted by the Government of Guyana with support from the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) [1], 55 percent of women have experienced domestic violence in their lifetime (Guyana and UN 2018, 30). In its media guidelines for reporting on interpersonal violence, the University of Guyana, without providing further details, cites research showing that domestic violence perpetrated by a current or former intimate partner increased from 74.8 percent in 2011 to 89 percent in 2017 and that over 80 percent of reports were made by women (University of Guyana 1 Jan. 2020, 3). In correspondence with the Research Directorate, a human rights educator, who has been training the Guyana Police Force on domestic violence since 1997 and who identified herself as "an individual citizen with some experience in dealing with gender-based violence and domestic violence in Guyana," stated that "[t]he data is only anecdotal as data collection [on domestic violence] in Guyana is a very complex issue" (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021).

According to the Women's Health and Life Experiences survey, the women who were interviewed reported the following forms of intimate partner violence:

(Guyana and UN 2018, 30)

The Guyana Empowered Peoples Action Network (GEPAN), which is a secular non-profit organization founded in 2016 that advocates for positive change at the community level through charitable and empowerment initiatives (GEPAN n.d.), conducted a micro-survey in 2018 among a sample of 103 Guyanese women living in Guyana and 38 living outside Guyana; 54 percent of the women surveyed reported family violence, 24 percent said that they had been raped, including by their intimate partners or husbands, and 12.6 percent stated that they were victims of incest (GEPAN [2019], 4–5).

In addition, 50 percent of the women who responded to the Guyana Women's Health and Life Experiences survey and reported at least one form of domestic violence said that they did not seek any help, whereas 17 percent sought help from the police, 6 percent from a religious leader, 4 percent from a health care provider, 4 percent from a counsellor, 2 percent from an NGO or a women's rights organization, 1 percent from an unspecified source and 0.6 percent from a community leader (Guyana and UN 2018, 49). Still according to this survey, among the women who sought no help, 15 percent feared threats, consequences or more violence; 37 percent thought the violence normal and not serious; 15 percent were embarrassed, ashamed or afraid they would not be believed or would be blamed; 9 percent were afraid that it would end their relationship; 4 percent were afraid of losing their children; 8 percent thought that it would bring shame on the family name; 8 percent were not aware of their options; and 13 percent were afraid for other unspecified reasons (Guyana and UN 2018, 93). GEPAN's survey found that 42 percent of women who did not reach out to talk about the violence that they were experiencing were too ashamed of it, 31 percent were afraid of being blamed, 20 percent were unsure of what their family's reaction would be, and 7 percent were afraid that someone might hurt them (GEPAN [2019], 7).

According to the human rights educator,

many abusers have gone to find the women and try to attack them or harass them and make life difficult for them. We have even had cases [where] the abusers have followed the women who have left the country and tried to harass them there. One woman who had been living abroad recently felt comfortable to return after the man died. She could never get a case [opened]. (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The Women's Health and Life Experiences survey reveals that 23 percent of women agreed that domestic violence can be justified in certain circumstances, whereas 28.3 percent agreed with the statement that domestic violence between husband and wife is a private matter (Guyana and UN 2018, 29).

2. Laws to Deter Domestic Violence

Sources report that the 1996 Domestic Violence Act sets out the main legislative framework for addressing domestic violence in Guyana (Guyana n.d.; Red Thread n.d.a, 1). In its preamble, the Act is defined as follows:

AN ACT to afford protection in cases involving domestic violence by the granting of a protection order, to provide the police with powers of arrest where a domestic violence offence occurs and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. (Guyana 1996)

The following sections in Part II of the Act include the provisions of a protection order:

Parties who may apply for a protection order

4.

1. An application for a protection order may be made by any of the following–
   
   1. a person associated with the respondent;
   2. where the alleged conduct involves a child under sixteen or a person suffering from a mental disability-
      
      1. a person with whom the child or person normally resides or resides on a regular basis;
      2. a parent of the child or person;
      3. a qualified social worker approved by the Minister by notice published in the Gazette;
      4. a police officer;
   3. a police officer;
   4. a qualified social worker approved by the Minister by notice published in the Gazette.
2. Where the applicant is a person other than the person on whose behalf the application is made, the person on whose behalf the application is made shall be a party to the proceedings, save that if that Parties who may apply for protection orders.
3. A child under the age of sixteen may with leave of the court apply for a protection order but such leave shall not be given unless the court is satisfied that the child has sufficient understanding to make the proposed application.
4. For the purposes of this section "conduct" mean conduct in respect of which a protection order may be made under section 5.

Protection order or undertaking

5.

1. Where, on an application made in accordance with this Act, the court is satisfied, on a balance of probabilities, that–
   
   1. the respondent has engaged in conduct that constitutes a domestic violence offence and unless the respondent is restrained the respondent is likely to engage in further conduct that would constitute that or another domestic violence offence;
   2. the respondent has threatened to engage in conduct that would constitute a domestic violence offence and, unless the respondent is restrained, the respondent is likely to engage in conduct that would constitute that or another domestic violence offence;
   3. the respondent has induced or forced the applicant or the person for whose benefit the order would be made without that person's consent, to be drugged with a substance or any other means that alters the will of the person, or to become intoxicated with alcoholic beverages, or has reduced such person's capacity to resist, by means of hypnosis, depressants, stimulants or by similar means or substances; or
   4. the respondent has engaged in harassment or psychological abuse of the applicant or the person for whose benefit the order would be made which constitutes a threat to the health, safety and well-being of that person, the court shall, subject to this section, make a protection order restraining the respondent from engaging in such conduct or in any other conduct referred to in this section.
2. The court, when making a protection order, may impose one or more of the prohibitions or conditions specified in section 6.
3. Where the court is satisfied that it is necessary in order to ensure the safety of the applicant or the person for whose benefit the order would be made pending the hearing and determination of the application to make an interim protection order the court may make such an order whether or not the application has been served on the respondent.
4. Where the court is satisfied that a previous protection order has not been made against and no undertaking has been given by the respondent the court may at any time before a protection order is made accept from the respondent a signed undertaking in Form I in the Schedule that he shall refrain from engaging in conduct of the nature specified in the application and in conduct that would constitute any domestic violence offence:
   Provided that no undertaking shall be accepted if an allegation is made against the respondent of conduct referred to in subsection l(a).
5. An undertaking given under this section may deal with such other matters that may be dealt with in a protection order as the court sees fit having regard to the matters referred to in section 7.
6. An undertaking given under this section and any matters dealt with in that undertaking shall remain in force for the period stated in the undertaking.
7. Sections 28, 30 and 32 apply, with such modifications as may be necessary, in relation to an undertaking as they do to a protection order.
8. The court is not precluded from making a protection order by reason of an undertaking being in force under a previous application.

…

Form and service of a protection order

31.

1. Where a protection order or an interim protection order is made or varied by the court, the clerk shall arrange for an order in the prescribed form to be formally drawn up and filed in the court.
2. A copy of an order made under subsection (l) shall be served by the applicant or his agent-
   
   1. personally on the respondent;
   2. on any other person who was a party to the proceedings; and
   3. on a police officer who is the officer in charge of a police station in the district of the court in which the order was made.
3. In subsection (1), a reference to an order in the prescribed form means-
   
   1. in the case of the making of a protection order or an interim protection order, an order in Form 6 in the Schedule;
   2. in the case of the varying of a protection order or an interim protection order, an order in Form 7 in the Schedule.

Breach of protection order

32.Where—

1. a protection order or an interim protection order is made and—
   
   1. the respondent was present at the time the protection order or interim protection order was made; or
   2. where the respondent was not present at the time the protection order or interim protection order was made but the order has been served personally on the respondent; and
2. the respondent contravenes the order in any respect,

the respondent commits an offence and is liable, on summary conviction, to a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars and to imprisonment for a period not exceeding twelve months. (Guyana 1996, Sec. 4-6, 31–32)

According to Red Thread, a Guyanese organization that helps women and children who are "exploited in unequal power relations" (Red Thread n.d.b), occupation orders require the abuser to vacate the family residence to allow the victim and their children to live there, whereas tenancy orders set out similar conditions in the context of a rental property (Red Thread n.d.a, 2–4). Both orders are detailed in sections 8 to 14 of the Domestic Violence Act (Guyana 1996, Sec. 8–14).

Sources report that the Guyanese government "must do a better job of enforcing laws against domestic violence" (BORGEN Magazine 18 Dec. 2020) and that the country does not have the right infrastructure to enforce family violence legislation (Pulitzer Center 20 Apr. 2020).

Sources indicate that marital rape is a criminal offence (US 30 Mar. 2021, 9; OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 3) under the Sexual Offences Act (OECD 7 Dec. 2018, 3). However, Guyana's Kaieteur News, a daily newspaper, reports that, according to a lawyer and former Human Services minister, there are "shortcoming[s]" in the implementation of this law, including the ongoing lack of sexual assault referral centres (Kaieteur News 19 Sept. 2019). According to Freedom House, there is a "low" conviction rate for sexual offences (Freedom House 4 Mar. 2020, Sec. G3).

3. State Protection
3.1 Police

According to the Guyanese newspaper Stabroek News, the Guyana Police Force received 1,662 reports of family violence in 2020, or 213 more than in 2019 (Stabroek News 13 May 2021). The same source indicates that an acting police commissioner said that 1,662 reports were received in 2020, and, as a result, 894 people were charged and 106 were warned, but he did not specify what happened in the other 662 cases (Stabroek News 11 Mar. 2021). According to the Guyana Times, a national online general-purpose newspaper, 1,672 cases of family violence were reported in 2020, up from 1,499 in 2019; 896 reports were received between January and June 2021 (Guyana Times 15 July 2021).

The Women's Health and Life Experiences survey found that 17 percent of the female respondents who experienced domestic violence at least once sought help from the police, and 5 percent of those who did not seek help from the authorities believed that they would not be helped or knew of other women who were not helped (Guyana and UN 2018, 49, 93). The same source indicates that among the women surveyed who had sought the help of the police, cases were opened in 46 percent of cases (Guyana and UN 2018, 60). In addition, GEPAN's survey found that 18 women participants [12.8 percent] reported that they were denied assistance or neglected by the police when they sought help in situations of abuse (GEPAN [2019], 8). According to the US Department of State's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2020, "[t]here were reports of police accepting bribes from perpetrators [of domestic violence]" (US 30 Mar. 2021, 9). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

Stabroek News reports the case of a woman who was killed on 27 June 2021 by her former partner after going to two police stations, in vain, to have a protection order issued against her abuser (Stabroek News 3 Aug. 2021). According to the newspaper, the victim went to the Georgetown Police Station, where she was told to go and make her request at the station near the suspect's residence in the Diamond/Grove area; when she went there between 23 and 24 June, she was told to return on 28 June when the officer in charge would be present, but her former partner killed her on 27 June (Stabroek News 3 Aug. 2021).

Stabroek News also published an article on police violence and sexual violence committed by police against fellow officers, which states the following:

Despite the increase in representation of female officers within the force, police departments are still primarily the realms of men. Within every police station, there is bound to be women who have experienced sexual harassment and/or assault at the hands of their male peers. Complaints often result in transfers of the assailant or their victims and/or an active urging to let the matter rest.

…

Officers wield a lot of power and are protected by their peers through collaborative silence and active cover-ups when they abuse others. Even when cases do get reported, getting justice can be really hard for many. (Stabroek News 23 July 2021a)

The human rights educator stated that "the police response [to family violence] is not consistent" because "some police are helpful others are not" and added, based on her experience of training officers since 1997, that police responses [to domestic violence] are "varied" because officers are trained without accountability and are not "screen[ed] … for their own personal experiences with domestic violence" (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021).

According to media reports, a police officer accused of raping a 17-year-old girl was found not guilty [by 11 of 12 jurors (Stabroek News 23 July 2021a)] (Stabroek News 23 July 2021a; iNews Guyana 20 July 2021) in July 2021 (iNews Guyana 20 July 2021).

In a January 2020 report to the UN Human Rights Council, the Government of Guyana states that the Guyana Police Force's strategic plan for 2013–2017 aimed to ensure a [Guyana English version] "modernization of the force" to address family violence and other issues (Guyana 10 Jan. 2020, para. 13). Information on the introduction and implementation of these measures could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response. Stabroek News reports that, according to a police commissioner, the police force is pursuing an "'aggressive'" policy of domestic violence training, which has become institutionalized as part of their recruitment program (Stabroek News 7 Mar. 2021).

3.2 Judicial System

According to the Guyana Times, in 1,672 reports of domestic violence in 2020 resulted in 893 court cases and 112 convictions, whereas 1,499 reports of domestic violence resulted in 918 court cases and 261 convictions in 2019 (Guyana Times 15 July 2021). The same newspaper reports the following:

Between 2019 and 2020, a total of 5,758 domestic violence matters were filed across all magisterial districts. For 2021 so far, 1,841 domestic violence matters have been filed at the various Magistrates Courts around Guyana. (Guyana Times 15 July 2021)

Freedom House reports that "conviction rates for [domestic violence] ... are low" (Freedom House 4 Mar. 2020, Sec. G3). US Country Reports 2020 indicates that "[s]uccessful prosecution of family violence cases was infrequent" and that "magistrates [applied] inadequate sentences after conviction" (US 30 Mar. 2021, 9). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The human rights educator stated that

[t]here are many times when the women would seek protection orders but then the justice system fails as the "man" is not found, or the man violates the order and the police cannot find him to arrest him. (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021)

According to a report by the Government of Guyana to the UN Human Rights Council:

[Guyana English version]

[The] [g]overnment continues to strengthen the capacity of staff within these courts [that deal with gender-related crimes] with training initiatives (including virtual training on domestic violence awareness and the law) and the provision of essential materials and equipment to facilitate the remote hearing of cases. (Guyana 30 Sept. 2020, 10)

The human rights educator stated that "[s]ome court clerks have received training [on domestic violence]" (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021).

According to media reports, the Attorney General and Legal Affairs Minister announced in July 2021 that the government was setting up separate courtrooms to better accommodate victims during family violence hearings (Guyana Chronicle 15 July 2021; Guyana Times 15 July 2021). The Guyana Chronicle, a Guyanese newspaper published in Georgetown, reports that the Minister and Attorney General explained that this decision was made because domestic violence involves very personal information, and in most cases victims are confronted by their abusers and would therefore not be able to express themselves freely (Guyana Chronicle 15 July 2021). Media reports indicate that as of 12 July 2021, domestic violence interviews and virtual hearings have already taken place in the Magistrate's Courts in the Essequibo-West Demerara Islands region as part of Guyana's implementation of separate courtrooms to address family violence (Guyana Times 15 July 2021; Guyana Chronicle 15 July 2021).

Reporting on the case of a man who was sentenced to 18 years in prison in July 2021 for killing his ex-wife, Stabroek News indicates that the judge felt that he had to take into account the prevalence of domestic and intimate partner violence "with which society is confronted on an almost daily basis" during sentencing and that a sentence "of sufficient severity needed to be imposed to deter potential offenders" (Stabroek News 23 July 2021b). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

3.3 Government Measures

The Government of Guyana indicates the following in its report to the UN Human Rights Council in January 2020:

[Guyana English version]

In 2017, under the Ministry of Social Protection, the Sexual Offences and Domestic Violence Policy Unit (SO&DVPU) is responsible for raising awareness on the effects of sexual offences, gender-based violence and domestic violence. (Guyana 10 Jan. 2020, para. 68)

Information on the implementation and effectiveness of these measures in the field could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

According to media reports, the Minister of Social Security is working with partners to establish the "Spotlight Initiative," a program that aims to educate and help victims of violence, as well as raise awareness (Stabroek News 13 May 2021; Guyana Chronicle 28 June 2021), and that has received funding from the EU for a period of three years (Guyana Chronicle 28 June 2021). Stabroek News reports in May 2021 that the program has been launched along with a new hotline, 914, specifically for reports of violence against women, which is part of this program, as well as a Gender-Based Violence Service Guide App launched in March 2021 that provides help and access to information (Stabroek News 13 May 2021). Stabroek News also indicates that in three months, the 914 hotline received a total of 197 calls, 80 percent of which were related to domestic violence (Stabroek News 20 Mar. 2021).

The Guyana Chronicle reports that serious crimes, including those related to family violence, have decreased in Region Six (East Berbice-Corentyne), with the Region Commander citing community meetings, the zero-tolerance policy on domestic violence, assistance in patrolling by private security companies, the establishment of police teams and the reactivation of the Station Management Committee and the Community Policing Group as reasons for this decrease (Guyana Chronicle 26 July 2021). Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

The UN Human Rights Council cites two other policy measures that were developed by the Government of Guyana to improve the well-being of women, namely, the National Gender Equality and Social Inclusion Policy and the five-year multisectoral National Action Plan for the Implementation of Sexual Offences and Domestic Violence Acts (UN 20 Mar. 2020, para. 7). A task force established in 2016 developed an action plan to address domestic violence and other issues and has approved protocols for doctors, police officers, prosecutors and judges (UN 20 Mar. 2020, para. 10). Information on the effectiveness of these measures in practice could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4. Support Services
4.1 Shelters

Help and Shelter, an organization whose mission is "to work towards the elimination of violence in all its forms" (Help and Shelter n.d.a), operates a shelter, which is reportedly the only one in the country and that has been open intermittently since 2000 depending on how much government funding it receives (Help and Shelter n.d.b). The shelter helps women who are victims of family violence, as well as their children (Help and Shelter n.d.b). Stabroek News reports in March 2021 that Help and Shelter noted that it operated at full capacity for seven months in 2020 and was forced to turn away more than 35 family violence survivors and their children (Stabroek News 11 Mar. 2021).

According to the human rights educator,

[T]he government now has a hotline, and with [restrictions related to COVID-19] have also provided safe shelter in some parts of Guyana using hotels, etc. The details are confidential, of course. (Human rights educator 1 Sept. 2021)

Corroborating information could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate within the time constraints of this Response.

4.2 Other Services

Help and Shelter has also set up a family violence crisis hotline and offers a psychological support service (Help and Shelter n.d.a). According to the Stabroek News, Help and Shelter reported that it experienced a more than 300 percent increase in calls to its crisis hotline between April and November 2020 (Stabroek News 11 Mar. 2021).

Red Thread established a Domestic Violence Survivors Self Help Support Group (DVSSHSG), which consists of a drop-in and outreach program where women and girls who are survivors of family violence can receive advice and support, meet other survivors to share their experiences, and finally, get referrals for advice from professionals, legal assistance and representation in court or seek refuge in a shelter if needed (Red Thread n.d.b). In 2013, Red Thread opened the Cora Belle and Clotil Walcott Self-Help Drop In Centre to merge DVSSHSG's family violence work with the assistance for low-wage working women also offered by Red Thread (Red Thread n.d.c).

The Guyana Legal Aid Clinic (formerly Georgetown Legal Aid Clinic) is an NGO that provides free or subsidized legal advice and representation to eligible victims of family violence who appear in court (Guyana Legal Aid Clinic n.d.). According to statistics from its website, from March 1994 to December 2020, the Clinic received 4,476 queries related to family violence, which resulted in 2,199 people receiving legal advice and 2,219 receiving both legal advice and representation in court (Guyana Legal Aid Clinic [Dec. 2020]). According to US Country Reports 2020, this clinic provides, with support from the government and the private sector, legal advice to people who cannot afford a lawyer, particularly victims of domestic violence and violence against women (US 30 Mar. 2021, 5).

This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of sources consulted in researching this Information Request.

Note

[1] The survey was conducted by the Guyana Bureau of Statistics on behalf of UN Women with support from the UNDP, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) in collaboration with the University of Guyana and the Global Women's Institute at George Washington University among 1,498 women aged 15-64 in 10 administrative regions and is also based on interviews with 24 community stakeholders and 13 focus groups made up of men and women (Guyana and UN 2018, 19).

References

BORGEN Magazine. 18 December 2020. Stacy Moses. "How Domestic Violence in Guyana Affects Poverty and Development." [Accessed 10 Aug. 2021]

Freedom House. 4 March 2020. "Guyana." Freedom in the World 2020. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2021]

Guyana. 30 September 2020. Rapport du Groupe de travail sur l'Examen périodique universel - Guyana. Additif : Observations sur les conclusions et/ou recommandations, engagements et réponses de l'État ayant fait l'objet de l'Examen. (A/HRC/44/16/Add.1) [Accessed 20 Aug. 2021]

Guyana. 10 January 2020. Rapport national soumis conformément au paragraphe 5 de l'annexe à la résolution 16/21 du Conseil des droits de l'homme. (A/HRC/WG.6/35/GUY/1) [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Guyana. 1996. Domestic Violence Act. [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Guyana. N.d. Ministry of Human Services and Social Protection. "Sexual Offences and Domestic Violence Unit." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Guyana, Bureau of Statistics, and United Nations (UN), UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women). 2018. Guyana Women's Health and Life Experiences Survey Report. Manuel Contreras-Urbina, et al. [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Chronicle. 26 July 2021. "Region Six Records Decline in Serious Crime, Increase in Traffic Offences." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Chronicle. 15 July 2021. Richard Bhainie. "'One Stop Shops' for Victims of Violence, Abuse." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Chronicle. 28 June 2021. "Countrywide Community Engagements Planned to Propel 'Spotlight Initiative'." [Accessed 3 Sept. 2021]

Guyana Empowered Peoples Action Network (GEPAN). [2019]. Violence Against Guyanese Women – The Survey. [Accessed 16 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Empowered Peoples Action Network (GEPAN). N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 20 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Legal Aid Clinic. [December 2020]. "Guyana Legal Aid Clinic. Summary of Matters Dealt with: March 1994 – December 2020." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Legal Aid Clinic. N.d. "About Us." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Guyana Times. 15 July 2021. "Govt to Establish 'One-Stop Shop' Facilities for Abuse Victims." [Accessed 26 Aug. 2021]

Help and Shelter. N.d.a. "About Help and Shelter." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Help and Shelter. N.d.b. "The Shelter." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Human rights educator, Guyana. 1 September 2021. Correspondence with the Research Directorate.

iNews Guyana. 20 July 2021. "Cop Found Not Guilty of Raping Girl, 17." [Accessed 2 Sept. 2021]

Kaieteur News. 19 September 2019. "Nine Years After Passage of Law… Support System for Sexual Offences Act Still Lacking." [Accessed 3 Sept. 2021]

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 7 December 2018. "Guyana." Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI). [Accessed 3 Sept. 2021]

Pulitzer Center. 20 April 2020. Daja E. Henry. "More than 50 Years Since Independence, Colonial Violence Plagues Guyana and Its Diaspora." [Accessed 11 Aug. 2021]

Red Thread. N.d.a. Domestic Violence Act. [Accessed 16 Aug. 2021]

Red Thread. N.d.b. "Our Purpose." [Accessed 20 Aug. 2021]

Red Thread. N.d.c. "Visit the Centre." [Accessed 20 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 3 August 2021. "Mother of Slain Domestic Violence Victim Believes Police Could Have Thwarted Tragedy." [Accessed 26 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 23 July 2021a. Akola Thompson. "Sexual Assault and the Blue Wall of Silence." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 23 July 2021b. Femi Harris-Smith. "Eighteen Years for Man Who Suffocated Wife in Herstelling Drain." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 13 May 2021. "Getting to the Root." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 20 March 2021. Sharda Bacchus. "Domestic Violence Cases Account for Majority of Reports Made to Abuse Hotline." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 11 March 2021. "In the Spotlight: Gender-Based Violence." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

Stabroek News. 7 March 2021. "1,662 Domestic Violence Reports Made to Cops Last Year – 894 Charged." [Accessed 24 Aug. 2021]

United Nations (UN). 20 March 2020. Rapport du Groupe de travail sur l'Examen périodique universel : Guyana. (A/HRC/44/16) [Accessed 20 Aug. 2021]

United States (US). 30 March 2021. Department of State. "Guyana." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2020. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2021]

University of Guyana. 1 January 2020. Guyana Media Guidelines for Reporting on Interpersonal Violence. [Accessed 10 Aug. 2021]

Additional Sources Consulted

Oral sources: Guyana – Guyana Police Force; Guyana Association of Women Lawyers; Guyana Legal Aid Clinic; Help and Shelter; Red Thread.

Internet sites, including: Amnesty International; ecoi.net; Human Rights Watch; Organization of American States – Inter-American Commission of Women; Organisation mondiale contre la torture; UN – Refworld; US – Central Intelligence Agency.