Turkey's largest religious minority, the Alevis, practise a form of Shia Islam that significantly distinguishes their form of worship from that of the Sunni Muslim majority (MRG 2007, 12). No official figures on Turkey's Alevi population exist (BBC 19 Mar. 2008). Estimates on the proportion of Turkey's population that belongs to the Alevi faith vary widely: estimates range between 10 and 40 percent of the population (MRG 2007, 12), but many sources put the total number of Turkey's Alevis at 15 (Turkish Daily News 14 Jan. 2008; US 11 Mar. 2008, Sec. 2.c) to 20 million (ibid.). The majority of Alevis speak Turkish and live mainly in urban areas (MERO n.d.b).
Religious rights
Religious freedom is officially enshrined in the Turkish Constitution (US 11 Mar. 2008, Sec. 2.c), and according to the International Religious Freedom Report 2007 published by the United States (US) Department of State, "Alevis freely [practise] their beliefs" (ibid. 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II). However, several sources note that discrimination against Turkish Alevis exists (ibid.; EU 6 Nov. 2007, 61; The Independent 6 Jan. 2007).
Alevis are sometimes referred to as "heretics" or "outcasts" by Sunni Muslim traditionalists (ibid.). According to a professor of divinity at Ankara University who is cited by The Independent, Muslim traditionalists view Alevi theology as "wrong" and as a "threat to their way of life and an obstacle to their ideal of creating a pious society built around the Qur'an" (ibid.), while other Sunnis argue that Alevis are not Muslims, an opinion shared by some Alevis themselves (US 11 Mar. 2008, Sec. 2.c). Forum 18, an Oslo-based news service that monitors religious freedom (Forum 18 n.d.), mentions the persistent reluctance of authorities to acknowledge Alevis as a distinct religious minority (ibid. 10 July 2007). Rather, the Turkish government identifies them as Sunni Muslims (ibid.). In May 2006, Ali Bardakoglu, the head of the Turkish Directorate for Religious Affairs (Diyanet) [a public office which oversees religious affairs (Turkey n.d.)] stated that "Alevis are de facto Sunni Muslims" (HRWF 26 July 2006).
However, Forum 18 noted that of all the religious minorities in Turkey, the Alevi community is "one religious minority that does not appear to face increased pressure in the current intolerant climate" and that the Alevi sector was expected to form an important section of the electorate supporting the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) (10 July 2007). An assistant professor of sociology at the Middle East Technical University is quoted by the Turkish Daily News as saying that, while it is no longer socially acceptable for traditionalist Sunnis to disparage Alevis in public, criticism is widespread in the private sphere (5 Dec. 2007).
The Diyanet does not provide funds to non-Sunni Muslim religious institutions (MRG 2007, 21). In addition, many Alevis allege that the Diyanet is dominated by Sunni Muslim theology (Turkish Daily News 19 Dec. 2007; US 11 Mar. 2008, Sec. 2.c), although the government maintains that the Diyanet does not discriminate in its provision of public service (ibid.).
Funding of religious institutions
In early 2007, Bardakoglu further stated that Turkey could not afford to fund "mystical worship" which was seen as including Alevis (The Independent 6 Jan. 2007). The Turkish government continues to classify "cem houses" or cemevis, where Alevis conduct religious gatherings, as cultural centres (BBC 19 Mar. 2008; HRWF 26 July 2006; US 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II) rather than as places of worship (MRG 2007, 21; US 11 Mar. 2008, Sec. 2.c). Therefore, while the Diyanet finances more than 85,000 Sunni mosques (BBC 19 Mar. 2008), Alevi places of worship do not receive state funding (The Independent 6 Jan. 2007; EU 6 Nov. 2007, 17; Turkish Daily News 14 Jan. 2008) and hence rely on private contributions (BBC 19 Mar. 2008). The Diyanet also does not fund Alevi events or pay salaries of religious clergy, as it does for the Sunni community (ibid.; US 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II).
Because cemevis cannot be listed as places of worship according to Turkish zoning laws, municipalities can refuse to grant building licences (MRG 2007, 21). In 2006, the municipality of Sultanbeyli refused a building permit for a cemevi (ibid.; US 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II), even though, according to an executive board member of the Alevi-Bektasi Federation, "'most buildings in the district, including the hospital constructed by the municipality, lack such a permit'" (MRG 2007, 21). In addition, the municipality requested that those Alevis involved in the construction be imprisoned for two years, although they were later acquitted (ibid.).
Alevi organizations have reported that, due to the difficulty in registering their places of worship, there were approximately 100 cemevis across the country in 2007, which they deemed "insufficient" (US 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II).
The Cem Foundation, Turkey's most prominent Alevi organization (Turkish Daily News 30 Aug. 2007; The Independent 20 Oct. 2007), is based in Istanbul and advocates for greater religious rights (BBC 18 Dec. 2006). In August 2005, the Foundation took the government to an administrative court over a package of requests that the state had rejected, including granting cemevis official status and paying the salaries of Alevi religious leaders who are known as dedes (Turkish Daily News 14 Jan. 2008). However, the court ruled against the Foundation (ibid.). Further information on any further appeals launched by the Foundation could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.
Education
Under Turkish law, primary and secondary schools must deliver mandatory religious classes to their students, although non-Muslims are exempted (US 14 Sept. 2007, Sec. II). While the government states that these courses teach material related to many different faiths, some religious minorities argue that the courses are based on a Sunni worldview (ibid.). In 2007, there were 4,000 pending court cases against the Ministry of Education involving Alevis who complained that Sunni-oriented religious instruction in public schools constituted discrimination (ibid.). Media sources indicate that religious education in state schools includes "derogatory depictions of Alevi identity and practice" (MERO n.d.b) and "'teach children how to be a good Sunni'" (BBC 19 Mar. 2008).
Some Alevi organizations consider religion classes to be inconsistent with official state secularism, and call for their removal from the curriculum, while others press for increased attention on Alevis within the existing religious curriculum (MRG 2007, 21). While the government has modified school textbooks to render them more inclusive about Alevi spiritual leaders, the Alevi Cem Foundation has reportedly brought the Ministry of Education to court over its perceived lack of accuracy in teaching about the Alevi faith (ibid.).
A number of Alevi organizations, including the Alevi-Bektasi Federation, an Ankara-based organization that represents 148 Alevi organizations in Turkey (Today's Zaman 15 Jan. 2008), supported a case brought to the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) by a parent who argued that mandatory religious education did not comply with the provisions of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) (MRG 2007, 21). The ECtHR later ruled in favour of the parent, arguing that "[f]amilies have the right to interfere with the education of their children" (Turkish Daily News 30 Aug. 2007) and that mandatory religious classes violated religious freedom (HRWF 10 Oct. 2007) and the right to education (EU 6 Nov. 2007, 17). In March 2008, Turkey's Council of State, the country's highest administrative court, ruled that religious classes aimed at Sunni Muslim students should not be obligatory (RFI 4 Mar. 2008; AFP 12 Mar. 2008; Los Angeles Times 4 Mar. 2008).
A 19 March 2008 article by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) reported that the ruling of the ECtHR had yet to be implemented in Turkey's schools, although this could not be corroborated among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate.
Political relations
In April 2006, the Turkish government removed the requirement of citizens to indicate their religious affiliation on their identification cards (MRG 2007, 21). However, Minority Rights Group International (MRG), a London-based non-governmental organization (NGO) that advocates for ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities and has consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) (MRG 2007, ii), notes that "the state continues to ask citizens to declare their religion ... which may result in arbitrary rejections and discriminatory practices" (ibid., 21). A representative of the Alevi-Bektasi Federation was quoted in the MRG report as saying that leaving the "religion" section on the ID card blank would be tantamount to admitting Alevi affiliation, making it more difficult for Alevis to find employment or complete their military service (ibid., 22).
According to MRG, Alevis are underrepresented in the Turkish political structure (ibid., 26). Before the 22 July 2007 elections, no Alevi sat among the 354 members of the ruling AKP party (ibid.). Following protests, four Alevis were included in the new parliament (ibid.). MRG also states that there was no Alevi or non-Muslim among the 81 provincial governors (ibid.).
In January 2008, Turkey's Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan participated in an important Alevi fast-breaking feast, iftar, in an attempt to improve chilly relations between the government and the Alevi community (Today's Zaman 17 Jan. 2008), marking the first time that a prime minister of the Turkish Republic has publicly participated in an Alevi festival (ibid.; BBC 19 Mar. 2008). The fast-breaking ceremony also included several hundred Alevi guests, the prime minister, and cabinet members (MERO n.d.b). However, many significant Alevi organizations failed to attend, because they questioned the government's sincerity (Today's Zaman 15 Jan. 2008) or considered the gesture a "misguided attempt at appeasing the European Union" (MERO n.d.b). The Middle East Report Online (MERO), a news magazine published by the Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP), a Washington-based NGO (MERO n.d.a), notes that politically, Alevi organizations tend to be largely secular, leftist, and anti-Islamist, which puts them at political odds with the current administration of the AKP (n.d.).
Reha Çamuroglu, the Alevi member of the AKP who organized the iftar has reportedly proposed a series of reforms that seek to address the human rights concerns voiced by the Alevi community (MERO n.d.b; Today's Zaman 15 Jan. 2008). Çamuroglu has stated that these reforms would include a publicly financed Alevi version of the Diyanet (MERO n.d.b) as well as new funding for some Alevi organizations (Today's Zaman 15 Jan. 2008). An article appearing in the Turkish Daily News indicated that Çamuroglu's proposal also included the provision of land and funds for cemevi construction, as well as the broadcasting of Alevi cultural programs in the state media (19 Dec. 2007).
In February 2008, the Istanbul-based television network, NTV Online, reported on a peaceful march in the streets of Istanbul that included 10,000 people protesting the government's policies on Alevis, among other issues (3 Feb. 2008).
In March 2008, Today's Zaman reported that Çamuroglu articulated a new measure whereby the government would fund cemevis and Alevi cultural centres through the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (13 Mar. 2008). The Turkish government has stated that the office, which will initially oversee the funding of Alevi cultural centres will eventually become an under secretariat reporting directly to the prime minister (Today's Zaman 13 Mar. 2008). New steps taken by the Diyanet with regard to the Alevi community include the publishing of three reference books for Alevis in 2007 and the pronouncement of a religious ruling, or fatwa, "on misconceptions about Alevis that will be announced in Turkey's mosques" (ibid.). At the same time, the Diyanet continues to oppose funding for cemevis, as Today's Zaman reported in April 2008 when it cited the head of the Diyanet as stating that "[i]t is wrong to present cemevis as an alternative to mosques, as this will turn Alevism into an independent religion" (11 Apr. 2008).
This Response was prepared after researching publicly accessible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee protection. Please find below the list of additional sources consulted in researching this Information Request.
References
Agence France-Presse (AFP). 12 March 2008. "Le Conseil d'État turc se prononce contre les cours obligatoires de religion." (La Croix/Turquie européenne) <http://www.turquieeuropeenne.eu/article2554.html> [Accessed 17 Apr. 2008]
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). 19 March 2008. Sarah Rainsford. "Turkish Minority Sect Pushes for Rights." <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7303536.stm> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
_____. 18 December 2006. "Guide to Turkish Islamic Websites." (BBC Monitoring Media/Factiva)
European Union (EU). 6 November 2007. Commission of the European Communities. Turkey 2007 Progress Report. <http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2007/nov/turkey_ progress_reports_en.pdf> [Accessed 6 May 2008]
Forum 18. 10 July 2007. Omar Oehring. "Turkey: Dangerous Consequences of Intolerance of Religious Minorities." <http://www.forum18.org/Archive.php?article_id=990> [Accessed 6 May 2008]
_____. N.d. "Forum 18 News Service." <http://www.forum18.org/NewsService.php> [Accessed 14 May 2008]
Human Rights Without Frontiers (HRWF). 10 October 2007. "Turkey: Court Says Turkish Islam Lessons Violate Rights." (Reuters) <http://www.hrwf.net/> [Accessed 11 Oct. 2007]
_____. 26 July 2006. Otmar Oehring. "Turkey: Little Progress on Religious Freedom." (Forum 18 News Service) <http://www.hrwf.net/> [Accessed 26 July 2006]
The Independent [London]. 20 October 2007. Nicholas Birch. "Turkish Father Wins Legal Case to Remove Girl from Religious Class." (Factiva)
_____. 6 January 2007. Benjamin Harvey. "The Plight of Turkey's Mystics." (The Hamilton Spectator/Factiva)
Los Angeles Times. 4 March 2008. "Turkey: Court Rules for Shiite Minority." (Factiva)
Middle East Report Online (MERO) [Washington, DC]. N.d.a. "Background and Purpose." <http://www.merip.org/misc/about.html> [Accessed 14 May 2008]
_____. N.d.b. Kerem Oktem. "Being Muslim at the Margins: Alevis and the AKP." <http://www.merip.org/mer/mer246/oktem.html> [Accessed 9 Apr. 2008]
Minority Rights Group International (MRG). 2007. A Quest for Equality: Minorities in Turkey. <http://www.minorityrights.org/download.php?id=432> [Accessed 6 May 2008]
NTV Online [Istanbul, in Turkish]. 3 February 2008. "Turkey's Alevis Protest Against Ruling Party Policies." (Factiva/BBC Monitoring European 4 Feb. 2008)
Radio France Internationale (RFI). 4 March 2008. François Cardona. "La laïcité divise le pays." <http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/099/article_63512.asp> [Accessed 2 May 2008]
Today's Zaman [Istanbul]. 11 April 2008. Ercan Yavuz. "Religious Affairs Directorate Closes Doors to Cemevis." <http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=138706> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
_____. 13 March 2008. Ercan Yavuz. "AK Party Intends to Expand Earlier Initiative to Reach Out to Alevis." <http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=136270> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
_____. 17 January 2008. Ibrahim Kalin. "Will the Alevi Initiative Share the Destiny of the Kurdish Initiative?" <http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/yazarDetay.do?haberno=131783> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
_____. 15 January 2008. Yonca Poyraz Dogan. "AK Party to Expand Dialogue with Alevis." <http://www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=131698> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
Turkey. N.d. Turkish Directorate for Religious Affairs. "The Presidency of Religious Affairs." <http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/english/default.asp> [Accessed 5 May 2008]
Turkish Daily News [Istanbul]. 14 January 2008. "Alevi Demand Rejected Despite Warm Messages." (Factiva)
_____. 19 December 2007. Goksel Bozkurt. "EU Monitors Alevi Reform." <http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=89912> [Accessed 2 May 2008]
_____. 5 December 2007. Devrim Sevimay. "'Alevis Want Rights First and Foremost'." <http://www.turkishdailynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=90368> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
_____. 30 August 2007. Sevin Turan. "Alevis Win Case on Religious Education." (Factiva)
United States (US). 11 March 2008. Department of State. "Turkey." Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2007. <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100589.htm> [Accessed 17 Apr. 2008]
_____. 14 September 2007. "Turkey." International Religious Freedom Report 2007. <http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90204.htm> [Accessed 21 Apr. 2008]
Additional Sources Consulted
Oral sources: Several professors specializing in Turkish minorities could not respond to requests for information within the time constraints of this Response.
Internet sources, including: Amnesty International (AI), The Economist, European Country of Origin Information Network (ecoi.net), Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, Human Rights Watch (HRW), International Helsinki Federation (IHF), Middle East Times, Turkishpress.com, World News Connection (WNC).